|
3 By Reader
Preface
| P Kirsten Ferreri "Caeristhiona" 2 0 0 0 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1 15/52 725 10:05
1 Extent Of Empire In Age Of Antonines 4 39.7 33:05 1:28:10 50/2:13=38%
|
|
| 1-3 The Roman Empire's military strength was maintained through a combination of discipline, training, and strategic recruitment. The legions, comprising heavy-armed infantry, were divided into cohorts and companies, with a uniform armor and weaponry. The soldiers were trained in various exercises, including marching, running, swimming, and handling weapons. The legion's constitution and tactics were perfected over nine centuries, with alterations and improvements introduced by various generals and emperors. The cavalry, though not as prestigious as in the republican era, was still a vital part of the legion, with troops recruited from the same provinces and classes as the infantry. Auxiliaries, including provincial levies and dependent princes, were also incorporated into the Roman army, with some trained in Roman discipline and others retaining their native arms and habits. The legion's artillery, comprising large and small engines, added to its formidable strength. |
|
| 1-4 The Roman Empire's military strength relied on discipline, training, and strategic recruitment. Legions, comprising heavy-armed infantry, were divided into cohorts and companies with uniform armor and weapons. Soldiers trained in various exercises, perfecting tactics over time. Cavalry, though less prestigious, remained important. Auxiliaries, including provincial levies and dependent princes, joined the army, with some trained in Roman discipline and others retaining native arms. Artillery, including large and small engines, added to the legion's strength. This formidable force enabled Rome to maintain its vast empire, ensuring peace and security through military prowess. |
|
|
|
2 Internal Prosperity In Age Of Antonines 4 31.4 26:10 1:03:36 50/2:02=41%
|
| 2-2 463,000 men able to bear arms 80,000 Romans massacred in one day 40 years after the reduction of Asia 100 years after the reduction of Asia (mentioned in the previous chapter) 4 generations to obliterate traces of servile origin 3,600 yoke of oxen 250,000 head of smaller cattle 4,116 slaves 6,945,000 Roman citizens 20,000,000 Roman citizens including women and children 120,000,000 persons in the Roman Empire |
|
| 2-3 This text describes the Roman Empire's architectural achievements and the prosperity of its cities under the rule of the emperors. It highlights the grandeur of Rome's public buildings, monuments, and infrastructure, such as aqueducts, theaters, and temples, which were often built with private funds and intended for public benefit. The text also mentions the prosperity of other cities in the empire, including those in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Africa, and Asia, many of which were adorned with similar grand buildings and monuments. The author notes that the empire's prosperity was not limited to the capital city, but was widespread throughout the provinces, and that many cities were able to maintain their independence and prosperity even under imperial rule. |
|
| 2-4 This text describes the Roman Empire's achievements in architecture, engineering, and governance, which facilitated communication, commerce, and cultural exchange across the vast empire. It highlights the empire's extensive network of roads, bridges, and public buildings, as well as its sophisticated system of governance, which allowed for the free flow of ideas, goods, and services. The text also notes the empire's cultural achievements, including the spread of literacy, the cultivation of arts and sciences, and the development of a shared language and culture. However, it also suggests that this period of peace and prosperity led to a decline in military spirit, political engagement, and intellectual curiosity, ultimately contributing to the empire's downfall. |
|
|
|
3 Constitution In Age Of Antonines 2 32.6 27:10 48:20 50/1:29=56%
| 3-1 To summarize, the text describes the Roman Empire's achievements in architecture, engineering, governance, and culture, which facilitated communication, commerce, and cultural exchange across the vast empire. However, this period of peace and prosperity led to a decline in military spirit, political engagement, and intellectual curiosity, ultimately contributing to the empire's downfall. |
|
| 3-2 The Roman Empire's extensive roads, bridges, and public buildings facilitated communication, commerce, and cultural exchange. A sophisticated system of governance allowed for the free flow of ideas, goods, and services. Literacy spread, arts and sciences flourished, and a shared language and culture developed. However, this period of peace and prosperity led to a decline in military spirit, political engagement, and intellectual curiosity. The empire's strength was gradually eroded, paving the way for its eventual decline and fall. Gibbon's classic work chronicles the empire's transformation and eventual collapse. |
|
|
|
|
|
4 Cruelty, Follies, & Murder Of Commodus 2 27.2 22:40 45:11
|
| 4-2 Marcus Aurelius, a wise and just emperor, was succeeded by his son Commodus, who was cruel and corrupt. Commodus's reign was marked by bloodshed, extravagance, and tyranny. He executed many innocent people, including his own sister and several nobles. His minister, Cleander, was equally corrupt and amassed great wealth through bribery and extortion. The empire suffered greatly during Commodus's reign, and he was eventually killed by a conspiracy involving his own ministers. The once-great empire was now plagued by corruption, violence, and instability, a far cry from the wisdom and virtue of Marcus Aurelius. |
|
|
|
|
|
| 5 Sale Of Empire To Didius Julianus 2 31 25:50 55:23
|
6 Death Of Severus. - Tyranny Of Caracalla. - Usurpation Of Macrinus 4 55.4 46:10 1:24:29
| 6-1 The text describes the reign of Emperor Severus and his two sons, Caracalla and Geta. Severus, a wise and just ruler, appoints his sons as co-emperors, hoping to reconcile their differences. However, their rivalry and hatred for each other lead to a division of the empire, with Caracalla ruling the West and Geta the East. Caracalla eventually has Geta murdered, and then orders the deaths of thousands of people connected to his brother. The reign of Caracalla is marked by brutality, paranoia, and guilt, ultimately leading to his own downfall. The text highlights the decline of the Roman Empire, once great and united, now divided and plagued by corruption and violence. |
|
| 6-2 Emperor Severus, wise and just, appoints his sons Caracalla and Geta as co-emperors, hoping to reconcile their differences. However, their rivalry and hatred lead to a division of the empire, with Caracalla ruling the West and Geta the East. Caracalla has Geta murdered, then orders the deaths of thousands connected to his brother. His reign is marked by brutality, paranoia, and guilt. The empire, once great and united, is now divided and plagued by corruption and violence. Severus's hopes for a united empire are shattered, and his sons' rivalry leads to a dark period in Roman history. |
|
|
|
|
|
7 Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of Maximin 3 38.5 32:05 1:07:23
|
|
| 7-3 Philip, seeking to distract from his crimes, celebrated the secular games with grandeur. This ancient tradition, revived by Augustus, was now in its fifth cycle, marking 1,000 years since Rome's founding. The ceremonies, excluding slaves and strangers, featured mystic sacrifices, music, and dances. Twenty-seven noble youths and virgins implored the gods to maintain Rome's virtue, felicity, and empire. The spectacle dazzled the multitude, while the reflective few pondered the empire's past and future. Despite appearances, the Roman empire was in decline, its strength and discipline waning, leaving it vulnerable to barbarian threats. |
|
|
|
|
8 State Of Persia After Restoration Of Monarchy 2 23.2 19:20 39:09
| 8-1 Tacitus describes the Romans' domestic troubles and external threats from enemies like the Germans and Parthians. As Rome declined, barbarian tribes attacked its provinces, establishing themselves within the empire. To understand these events, it's essential to know the character, forces, and designs of these nations. In ancient times, Asia was home to populous cities and extensive empires, while Europe was still a forest inhabited by savages. The Persians, under Artaxerxes, defeated the Parthians and established a new dynasty, which ruled until the Arab invasion. This revolution had a significant impact on the Romans, who faced a formidable new enemy in the Persians. |
|
| 8-2 Tacitus describes Rome's domestic troubles and external threats from enemies like the Germans and Parthians. As Rome declined, barbarian tribes attacked its provinces, establishing themselves within the empire. To understand these events, it's essential to know the character and designs of these nations. The Persians, under Artaxerxes, defeated the Parthians and established a new dynasty. This revolution had a significant impact on the Romans, who faced a formidable new enemy. The Persians' religion, based on Zoroaster's teachings, emphasized the struggle between good and evil. Their empire, under Artaxerxes, sought to restore the splendor of Cyrus' reign. |
|
|
|
|
|
| 9 State Of Germany Till Invasion Of Barbarians 3 33.8 33:48 53:32
|
10 Emperors Decius, Gallus, Aemilianus, Valerian & Gallienus 3 60.7 50:35 1:47:20
| 10-1 The Roman Empire was plagued by barbarous invaders and military tyrants from the secular games of Philip to the death of Emperor Gallienus. The historian faces difficulties due to the scarcity of authentic memorials and the need to collect, compare, and conjecture. The successive murders of emperors loosened allegiance between the prince and people, and the rebellion against Philip broke out in 249 among the legions of Maesia. Decius, a senator, was chosen to restore peace and discipline to the army, and he eventually became emperor after Philip's death. The Goths, a great people, were first mentioned in this period and later broke the Roman power, sacked the Capitol, and reigned in Gaul, Spain, and Italy. |
|
| 10-2 The Goths, possessing fertile Ukraine with its navigable rivers and forests, resisted settling there, preferring Roman territories like Dacia. The weakened Roman Empire faced Gothic invasions, Decius's efforts, and Valerian's ascension amid internal strife. Gallienus and Valerian battled foreign threats: Franks, Alemanni, Goths, and Persians. Franks, rooted in Lower Rhine and Weser regions, formed a confederacy around 240 CE for liberty and plunder, contrasting Swiss unity. Their raids persisted despite treaties, defining their restless nature against Rome's declining order under Valerian and Gallienus' tumultuous rule. |
|
| 10-3 The Romans faced constant threats from the Germans of Lower Germany, necessitating Gallienus's presence. His co-rule with Salonius from Treves showcased imperial might while Posthumus led armies, later betraying Valerian. Medals boasted his victories, but Franks breached the Rhine, ravaging Spain. Suevi rituals at Sonnenwald, birthplace myths, and unique hairdos set them apart. Caracalla met Suevi hordes at Mein, fostering Alemanni. Goths plagued Danube's borders, pillaging Pontus and Bithynia, annexing Bosphorus. From treacherous Cyzicus to plundered Athens, Gothic might spread. Gallienus curtailed Alemanni at Milan, while marrying Pipa. Gothic fleets sacked Trebizond, ravaged Greece, and menaced Italy, only to retreat. Their banded raids wielded terrors and wealth in equal measure, echoed in future conquests. |
|
| 10-4 In the annals of human calamities, individual deaths and even the ruin of famous structures often receive indifferent disregard. Yet, the temple of Diana at Ephesus, repeatedly restored, met its final destruction by Gothic hands, a marvel of marble columns and Praxiteles' sculptures. Though smaller than St. Peter's, it stood as a wonder, revered by Persians, Macedonians, and Romans. Amidst these epochs, Gothic invaders, disdainful of foreign beliefs, allegedly spared Athens' libraries, claiming that Greek learning hindered martial spirit—a claim at odds with history, where eras of enlightenment often coincided with military virtue. |
|
|
|
11 Reign Of Claudius. - Defeat Of Goths 3 46.9 39:05 1:14:41
| 11-1 During Valerian and Gallienus's reigns, the Roman Empire was nearly destroyed by internal and external turmoil. It was revitalized by a series of military leaders from Illyricum: Claudius, Aurelian, Probus, and Diocletian. They reestablished discipline, strengthened frontiers, and were celebrated as restorers of the Roman world. Gallienus's death led to Claudius's rise, who overcame the Gothic threat and laid the groundwork for restoring the empire. His successor, Aurelian, continued these efforts, maintaining strict military discipline and achieving significant victories, ultimately restoring the empire's stability and territorial integrity. |
|
|
| 11-3 After a victorious campaign against Gothic raiders, the Palmyrene prince returned to Emesa, Syria, where he fell victim to treachery. His nephew, Maeonius, angered by a perceived insult, assassinated him. Zenobia, his widow, seized power, extending Palmyra's dominion over Egypt. Her reign, marked by wise and resolute governance, was eventually challenged by Emperor Aurelian. Despite fierce resistance, Zenobia was captured, and Palmyra was subdued. Aurelian celebrated his triumph with grand ceremonies, showing mercy to Zenobia, who lived in Rome thereafter. This victory restored stability to the Roman Empire, showcasing Aurelian’s military prowess and leadership. |
|
|
|
|
12 Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus & His Sons 3 46.1 38:25 1:35:33
|
|
| 12-3 The Roman Empire was thrown into turmoil after the death of Emperor Carus. His sons, Carinus and Numerian, were left to navigate the treacherous waters of imperial politics. Carinus, the elder, was consumed by luxury and cruelty, while Numerian, the younger, was gentle and virtuous. Numerian's death led to a power struggle, and the Praetorian prefect, Arrius Aper, attempted to seize control. However, the army discovered Numerian's corpse and accused Aper of murder. Diocletian, commander of the bodyguards, was chosen as the new emperor and promptly executed Aper. Carinus was eventually killed by a tribune seeking revenge. |
|
|
|
|
| 13 Reign Of Diocletian & his 3 Associates 4 77.8 1:04:50 1:46:37
|
14 Six Emperors At Same Time, Reunion Of Empire 4 66.5 55:25 1:46:18
|
| 14-2 Constantine and Maxentius, though not allies, faced a common enemy and considered an alliance. Maximian, despite his age, crossed the Alps to unite with Constantine, giving him his daughter Fausta in marriage. As tensions rose, Galerius invaded Italy, seeking revenge but met resistance. Constantine, careful in his approach, observed the unfolding conflict, ultimately defeating his rivals. Galerius's army retreated, plundering Italy. Meanwhile, Maximian's ambitions led to his downfall and death. The political landscape saw shifts in alliances and power struggles, with Constantine emerging as a significant figure. His reign, though marked by some controversy, brought stability to his territories. |
|
| 14-3 Hannibal’s crossing from Gaul to Italy required pioneering through untouched mountains and hostile tribes. The Alps, now fortified with citadels, were then a natural barrier. In Constantine's era, these mountains had become more accessible due to Roman roads and civilized local inhabitants. Constantine preferred the Cottian Alps route, surprising his enemies with swift attacks. At Turin, he decisively defeated Maxentius’s forces, and after significant sieges and battles, including at Verona and Rome, Constantine ultimately prevailed. His victories led to the downfall of Maxentius, the abolition of the Praetorian Guard, and significant political and military reforms throughout Italy. |
|
|
|
|
15 Progress Of Christian Religion 9 94.4 1:18:40 2:24:40
| 15-1 The rise of Christianity was a significant event in the history of the Roman Empire. Despite persecution, Christianity spread rapidly, aided by its pure teachings, miraculous powers, and the union of its followers. The inflexible zeal of Christians, derived from Judaism, played a crucial role. While the Roman Empire declined, Christianity grew, eventually becoming the dominant religion. Its influence extended beyond the empire's borders, shaping European society and culture. The historian must acknowledge the mixture of error and corruption that Christianity acquired over time, but its enduring legacy is a testament to its profound impact on human history. |
| 15-2 The separation of Christianity from Judaism was a gradual process. Jewish converts to Christianity, like the Nazarenes, respected Jesus as a prophetic teacher but adhered to Jewish ceremonies. They argued that if God intended to abolish these rites, he would have done so clearly. However, the Gentiles rejected these ceremonies, and the Nazarenes eventually renounced them to join the Catholic Church. The Ebionites, who refused to abandon Jewish practices, were deemed heretics and excluded from salvation. The Gnostics, who emerged later, rejected the Mosaic law and Jewish scriptures, instead blending Christianity with oriental philosophy. |
|
| 15-3 The early Christians believed it was their duty to avoid idolatry, which was deeply ingrained in everyday life. They struggled to participate in social events, commerce, and art without being exposed to idolatrous practices. Even seemingly innocent customs, like decorating doors with lamps and laurel, were viewed with suspicion due to their association with household gods. The Christians' zeal for their faith led them to protest against these practices, fortifying their attachment to the gospel. Their belief in the immortality of the soul was rooted in divine revelation, as philosophical and religious teachings of the time offered limited and conflicting views on the subject. |
| 15-4 The ancient doctrine of the Millennium was tied to Christ's second coming. It was believed that after 6,000 years, a 1,000-year Sabbath would begin, and Christ would reign on earth with the saints. A New Jerusalem would be built, with a garden of Eden and supernatural abundance. This hope was widespread and contributed to Christianity's progress. But when the church was established, the doctrine was rejected as heresy. A prophecy that supported the sentiment was nearly excluded from the sacred canon. While Christians awaited a triumphant reign, they also predicted calamities for the unbelieving world, including Rome's destruction by fire. |
|
| 15-5 The primitive Christians demonstrated their faith through virtues like repentance and the desire to support their community's reputation. Critics accused Christians of attracting criminals, but this criticism actually honors the church. Many saints were former sinners who devoted themselves to virtue and penitence. As a small society, the church's character relied on its members' behavior, encouraging them to watch over each other. Christians were bound to abstain from crimes and lived austerely, practicing chastity, temperance, and humility. Their faults came from excess virtue, like self-mortification and patience. This sublime doctrine commanded veneration but not suffrage from worldly philosophers. |
| 15-6 The primitive Christians' love of action led them to govern the church, adopting internal policies and appointing ministers. This led to a spirit of patriotism and ambition, as they sought to raise themselves or friends to honors and offices. The church's government became a prize to be won, with hosts of turbulent passions. The episcopal form of government emerged, with presbyters and bishops guiding congregations. The bishop's office evolved, becoming a perpetual magistracy with a president to execute duties. This episcopal form spread, sanctioned by antiquity, and revered by powerful churches in the East and West. |
|
| 15-7 The primitive Christians' enthusiasm eventually gave way to a more natural state, and their love of action found a new outlet in governing the church. They adopted internal policies and appointed ministers, fostering a spirit of patriotism and ambition. The church's government became a prize to be won, with individuals seeking to advance themselves or their friends. Turbulent passions emerged, mirroring those of the Roman Republic. The episcopal form of government evolved, with bishops and presbyters guiding congregations. This system spread, gaining acceptance across the empire and becoming a cornerstone of Christian governance. |
| 15-8 The apostle of the Gentiles spread the gospel in the provinces from the Euphrates to the Ionian Sea. His disciples cultivated the seeds he scattered, and during the first two centuries, the most significant body of Christians was in these limits. The seven churches of Asia, Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamus, Thyatira, Sardes, Laodicea, and Philadelphia, were immortalized in the Apocalypse. Christian republics were established in Corinth, Sparta, and Athens. The Greek and Asiatic churches flourished, and even heretics like the Gnostics served as a testimony to the orthodox church's strength. The writings of Lucian and Pliny attest to the spread of Christianity in the East. |
|
|
|
|
2 11
16 Conduct Towards Christians, From Nero To Constantine 8 93.5 1:17:55 2:35:50
| 16-1 The sixteenth chapter ingeniously yet disgracefully excuses Roman magistrates' cruelties against Christians, displaying prejudice unworthy of a philosopher. Instead of condemning Cyprian's unjust execution for refusing to sacrifice to Jupiter, it highlights trivial politeness. This leniency contrasts with Dr. Robertson's criticism for his stance on Spanish tyrants in America. Such tolerance reveals the eighteenth century's anti-Christian sentiment. Considering Christianity's purity, one would expect respect, not persecution, from Roman authorities who tolerated polytheism. Yet Christians faced severe punishment, unlike Jews, because they rejected all gods except their own, challenging both societal norms and state power. |
| 16-2 History should record past events for future generations without excusing tyrants or justifying persecution. Early emperors, less harsh towards Christians, contrast with later sovereigns who violently suppressed religious dissent. Emperors like Charles V or Louis XIV might have understood conscience and faith, unlike Roman rulers who couldn’t fathom Christian resilience against state traditions. Early Roman persecution of Christians was less severe, driven by pragmatic policy rather than zealotry, leading to intermittent peace for the church. Nero’s infamous cruelty towards Christians, falsely blamed for Rome’s fire, reflected broader public scapegoating rather than genuine religious intolerance. |
|
| 16-3 The Roman Emperor Trajan's response to Christians revealed a mix of justice, humanity, and religious policy. He prioritized protecting the innocent over punishing the guilty, and prohibited anonymous accusations. Accusers had to provide evidence and specify details, making it difficult to prosecute Christians. The emperor's edicts protected Christians from mob violence and irregular accusations. Even when convicted, Christians could choose life over death by renouncing their faith. Magistrates often showed leniency, using persuasion and torture only when necessary. The number of martyrs was relatively small, and many Christians escaped persecution altogether. |
| 16-4 When Valerian and Gallienus were consuls, Paternus, the African proconsul, ordered Cyprian to abandon Christianity or face punishment. Cyprian, steadfast in his faith, was exiled to Curubis. He later returned, anticipating martyrdom. Arrested and given a final chance to renounce his faith, Cyprian refused. The proconsul sentenced him to beheading for opposing Roman gods. As Christians expressed their support, Cyprian was escorted to execution. His calm acceptance, the public mourning, and the dignified funeral illustrated his lasting impact. His martyrdom was a testament to his devotion and the admiration of early Christians for their faith’s defenders. |
|
| 16-5 Tertullian's apology highlights two ancient, singular, yet suspicious instances of imperial leniency: Tiberius's edicts protecting Christians and Marcus Antoninus's favor after a miraculous event. The skepticism arises from Pontius Pilate's report to Tiberius, the latter's sudden respect for Jesus despite disdain for religion, and the absence of these events in Greco-Roman histories. Marcia's protection under Commodus contrasts with Marcus Aurelius's persecution. Severus's brief tolerance ended with Christian growth. Philip's rumored conversion and Gallienus's edict were favorable, but Decius persecuted, and Valerian wavered. Diocletian initially tolerated Christians but later intensified persecution amid rising Christian influence and philosophical backlash. |
| 16-6 Diocletian and Constantius leaned towards toleration, but Maximian and Galerius despised Christians. Educated only in warfare, they retained soldierly superstitions. Though they obeyed imperial laws publicly, secret persecutions happened in camps and palaces, exploiting Christian zeal. Maximilianus was executed for rejecting soldiering, and Marcellus for refusing his centurion role. Amid Diocletian's leniency, Galerius intensified Christian exclusion, sparking fear of their growing influence. Nicomedia's church was razed; Galerius wanted Christians burned alive, but Diocletian hesitated. Severe penalties targeted Christians; their books were burnt, properties seized. Despite resistance, persecution spread, bolstered by suspicion after palace fires. Even Pagan mercy faced peril for shielding Christians. |
|
| 16-7 Diocletian's edicts against Christians led to varying enforcement across the empire. Constantius, Caesar at the time, softened persecution in Gaul (including Britain), protecting Christians from mob violence and legal harshness. Conversely, Datianus in Spain zealously followed imperial decrees, leading to some martyrdoms. Constantius' later elevation to Augustus allowed him to promote tolerance more openly, laying groundwork continued by his son, Constantine. Maxentius' rule in Italy and Africa offered a brief respite, his treatment of Christians less severe than his tyranny towards others. Galerius' initial fervor waned, eventually issuing an edict of toleration with Licinius and Constantine, marking a pivotal shift towards Christian acceptance. |
| 16-8 The number of Christian martyrs under Diocletian’s edicts remains uncertain. While legend claims vast casualties, Eusebius suggests nine bishops and ninety-two martyrs in Palestine. Extrapolating, this totals around fifteen hundred empire-wide over ten years, approximating an annual rate of 150. Across Italy, Africa, and Spain, the total may approach two thousand. Despite these figures, Christian-on-Christian persecution in later centuries, notably during the Reformation, exceeded ancient martyrdoms. Grotius cites over 100,000 Protestant executions in the Netherlands alone, eclipsing early Christian losses. Such comparisons challenge historical credibility, urging scrutiny of sources and caution in assessing ancient martyrologies. |
|
|
|
17 Foundation Of Constantinople 6 72.5 1:00:25 2:00:50
|
| 17-2 Constantine, aiming to immortalize his rule, lavished vast resources on Constantinople's construction: 2.5 million pounds funded walls, porticos, aqueducts. Materials, like marble from Proconnesus, were plentiful, aided by sea transport. Architects, despite lacking Pericles' era skill, adorned the city with artworks pillaged from Greece and Asia. The Forum, atop a hill, featured a circular design, triumphal arches, statues, and a column topped by a bronze Apollo. The Hippodrome, 400 by 100 paces, once hosted serpentine columns and obelisks, now lost. Zeuxippus' baths, enriched by Constantine, symbolized the city's opulence, growing to rival Rome, drawing elites and artisans, as the new capital burgeoned under imperial patronage. |
|
| 17-3 The Roman pride in power initially left ceremonial grandeur to the East. But as freedom waned, Asian court customs seeped in. Personal merit faded under imperial despotism, replaced by strict rank and title hierarchy from throne-seated slaves to power's tools. A divine-like hierarchy emerged, exacting in rank and ceremony, debasing Latin purity with grandiose flattery. Officials, even the emperor, were adorned with titles like "Your Sincerity," "Your Eminence," in elaborate displays of power. Consuls, once free state leaders, now mere imperial symbols, wielded ritualized authority in public festivities. The Patricians lost their noble distinction, their ranks diluted in a changing empire, yet their titles endured in imperial service, a nod to past glories. |
|
|
| 17-5 The Roman Empire increasingly relied on Barbarian soldiers, essential yet perilous. Scythians, Goths, and Germans joined both auxiliaries and legions, mingling with Romans and adopting their ways. Promoted based on military skill, their ascent reshaped Roman leadership, even holding high commands against their kin. Constantine broke tradition, honoring deserving Barbarians with consulship. The palace and army were dominated by Franks, unified and proud, overshadowing Roman officials. Meanwhile, the Imperial bureaucracy flourished: eunuchs managed the emperor’s private quarters, and quaestors governed finances and legislation. Posts and roads enhanced communication but were misused for espionage and oppression. Torture was common, especially for treason, eroding civil liberties despite exemptions for some. |
| 17-6 The term "indiction" in the Middle Ages, derived from Roman tributary practices, marked the chronology. Emperors signed purple-inked edicts, "indictions," posted across diocesan cities two months prior to September 1st. Originally a measure of tribute for yearly payments, indiction adapted to levy based on state needs. Finances' execution involved Praetorian prefects managing imposed taxes. Assessing provinces, cities, individuals, the process filled Imperial treasuries annually. Census' detail, every 15 years, surveyed lands, with produce like wine, oil, and cattle taxed for Imperial use. Though oppressive, it maintained state function until Barbarian influence and economic decline reshaped policy and contribution terms. |
|
|
18 Character Of Constantine & His Sons 4 57.2 47:40 1:35:20
| 18-1 Constantine's legacy is polarized between adulation and condemnation. Christians laud him as the champion of their faith, while critics liken him to despised tyrants. His towering stature and dignified presence captivated many, his military prowess and administrative diligence were renowned. Yet, as his reign progressed, he succumbed to opulence and excess, straining the empire's finances. His treatment of Crispus, unjustly executed amidst suspicions stoked by court intrigue, tainted his later years. Despite attempts to reconcile his legacy's conflicting hues, Constantine remains an enigmatic figure, a blend of ambition and downfall, whose actions reverberate through history's judgments of power and its pitfalls. |
|
| 18-2 After Crispus's death, the succession fell to Fausta's three sons—Constantine, Constantius, and Constans. Each was made Caesar in their tenth, twentieth, and thirtieth year respectively, by their father's favoritism. Constantine further risked stability by elevating nephews Dalmatius and Hannibalianus; the latter even granted the title "King," unprecedented and controversial. Educated for rule, the princes excelled in martial and intellectual pursuits. Constantine's death left them as heirs, each governing distinct regions—Constantine in Gaul, Constantius in the East, Constans in the West, Dalmatius on the Gothic frontier, and Hannibalianus in the East. Constantine's reign saw relative peace, marred only by minor uprisings and involvement in Gothic and Sarmatian conflicts. |
|
| 18-3 The dying emperor entrusted Constantius with his funeral, given his close proximity in the East, away from his brothers in Italy and Gaul. Upon seizing Constantinople, Constantius reassured his kin with an oath for their safety, then sought release from a rash vow by employing fraud. The Bishop of Nicomedia supplied a forged will, accusing his brothers of poisoning their father. Soldiers, judge and executioner, massacred uncles, cousins, and others. Amid alliances like Constantius marrying his uncle's daughter, and sister to cousin, family ties were meaningless. Of many, only Gallus and Julian survived. Constantius, burdened with guilt, later showed fleeting remorse. |
|
| 18-4 The fate of Constans was delayed, and vengeance for his brother's death fell to a domestic traitor. Constantine's flawed system showed in his sons' weak rule, losing people's esteem. Constans' pride in undeserved victories was marred by incompetence. His favoritism towards German captives was scandalous, aiding Magnentius, a soldier of Barbarian descent, to seize power amid public discontent. Magnentius' troops, Jovians and Herculians, led the coup at Autun. Marcellinus funded seduction; soldiers broke hereditary servitude for an able ruler. Magnentius crowned emperor, hunted Constans but killed his son. West's provinces backed Magnentius; Constantius, rallied by the murdered Constans' shade, rejected peace; Vetranio's alliance failed; Mursa's battle saw Constantius prevail, ending Magnentius. |
|
|
|
19 Constantius Sole Emperor 4 59 49:10 1:38:20
| 19-1 The divided provinces of the empire were again united by Constantius' victory, but his weak rule allowed eunuchs to dominate. These beings, products of Oriental despotism, entered Greece and Rome with Asiatic luxury, gaining influence despite earlier contempt. Eunuchs like Eusebius controlled Constantius through flattery and intrigue, exploiting justice for wealth and favor. Gallus, Constantine's nephew, survived childhood exile to become Caesar, but his reign in Antioch turned tyrannical. His cruel rule, guided by his wife Constantina, bred fear and discontent, leading to reckless acts like the brutal executions of Domitian and Montius. Eventually, Gallus' downfall came swiftly amid accusations and betrayals, ending in his execution. |
|
| 19-2 After a long delay, the reluctant Caesar finally embarked on his journey to the Imperial court. Travelling from Antioch to Hadrianople with a grand retinue, he concealed his fears behind games in Constantinople. His journey hinted at danger: cities' ministers seized power, troops were kept from aiding him, and his retinue was reduced. At Hadrianople, he was ordered to stay while the Caesar rushed ahead alone. His respect faded to familiarity, and he was arrested at Petovio, then imprisoned and interrogated. Condemned by Constantius, he was beheaded. Only Julian survived, and his grace with the empress spared him, leading to his exile in Athens, where he found solace in philosophy and Greek culture. |
|
| 19-3 "Forty-five flourishing cities, Tongres, Cologne, Treves, Worms, Spires, Strasburg, &c., besides a far greater number of towns and villages, were pillaged, and for the most part reduced to ashes. The Barbarians of Germany, still faithful to the maxims of their ancestors, abhorred the confinement of walls, to which they applied the odious names of prisons and sepulchers; and fixing their independent habitations on the banks of rivers, the Rhine, the Moselle, and the Meuse, they secured themselves against the danger of a surprise, by a rude and hasty fortification of large trees, which were felled and thrown across the roads." |
|
| 19-4 Under these melancholy circumstances, an inexperienced youth was appointed to govern Gaul, admitting it was to display the vain image of Imperial greatness. Julian’s scholastic education left him ignorant of war and governance; he found solace in Plato’s philosophy, inspiring virtue, fame, and contempt of death. Temperance from his studies aided camp life; rejecting delicacies, he ate with soldiers. In a bitter winter, he refused fires, rising at night to work or study. Julian’s eloquence aided troop morale; his Latin mastery balanced Greek. Lacking legal training, philosophy guided his justice and equity. Despite setbacks, Julian’s vigor and Sallust’s counsel fostered military success in Gaul, overcoming challenges and earning respect. |
|
\ |
|
| 20 Conversion Of Constantine 4 50.6 42:10 1:24:20
|
21 Persecution Of Heresy, State Of Church 7 84.2 1:10:10 2:20:20
| 21-1 Constantine's conversion to Christianity had far-reaching consequences. He granted privileges to the clergy, built churches, and promoted Christianity throughout the empire. However, he also persecuted Heretics and dissenting sects, such as the Novatians and Donatists. The Donatist schism in Africa lasted over three centuries. Constantine's involvement in ecclesiastical affairs led to the Council of Nicea, which established the orthodox faith and condemned Arianism. The Trinitarian controversy continued to divide the empire, with Arianism spreading among the barbarian tribes. Theological disputes became intertwined with political power struggles, shaping the fate of the empire. |
| 21-2 The Christian Revelation, completed under Emperor Nerva, revealed the secret of the Logos, who was both God and the creator of all things, incarnate in Jesus Christ. The evangelic theologian aimed to confute two heresies: the Ebionites, who saw Jesus as a prophet, and the Docetes, who denied his human nature. The divine sanction of Plato's principles encouraged Christians to study his writings, leading to a mix of truth and error. The Trinity was debated in Alexandria's philosophical and Christian schools, with even Athanasius admitting the difficulty of comprehending the divinity of the Logos. |
|
| 21-3 The Christians' tender reverence for Christ and horror of profane worship led them to assert the Logos' equal divinity, while avoiding unity and supremacy violations. Theologians' writings, post-apostolic age and pre-Arian controversy, show suspense and fluctuation between opposite tendencies. Their suffrage is claimed by both orthodox and heretical parties. Critics acknowledge that even if they possessed Catholic verity, their conceptions were delivered in loose, inaccurate, and sometimes contradictory language. The degree of weakness may be measured by dogmatic confidence. Devotion inflamed philosophical indifference, and metaphors suggested fallacious prejudices. |
| 21-4 Fourscore years after Christ's death, Bithynian Christians declared before Pliny's tribunal that they invoked Christ as a god. His divine honors have been perpetuated by various sects. Their reverence for Christ and horror of profane worship led them to assert the Logos' equal divinity, avoiding unity and supremacy violations. Theologians' writings show suspense and fluctuation between tendencies. Suffrage is claimed by both orthodox and heretical parties. Critics acknowledge loose and inaccurate language. Weakness is measured by dogmatic confidence. Devotion inflamed philosophical indifference, and metaphors suggested fallacious prejudices. |
|
|
|
| 12-7 Constantius's cruel disposition was exacerbated by the tumults in his capital and the criminal behavior of a faction that opposed his authority and religion. He punished with death, exile, and confiscation. By his edict, those who refused to communicate with Arian bishops were deprived of immunities and rights. Macedonius, the Semi-Arian tyrant, exceeded his commission, administering sacraments to reluctant victims and using cruel methods to force baptism and communion. The Novatians, confused with Catholics, were attacked by Macedonius, resulting in the defeat of Roman legions by Paphlagonian peasants. Theological calamities afflicted the empire, with many imprisoned, persecuted, or driven into exile. |
|
|
22 Julian Declared Emperor 4 47.5 39:35 1:19:10
|
23 Reign Of Julian 5 59.1 49:15 1:38:40
|
24 Retreat & Death Of Julian 5 70.2 58:30 1:17
|
|
| 24-3 The Roman army, led by Emperor Julian, marched through Mesopotamia, passing through the desert and encountering various obstacles. They reached the fertile province of Assyria, which stretched from the Tigris River to the Persian Gulf. The region was known for its artificial canals, palm groves, and fertile soil, which produced wheat, barley, and dates. The army approached the ancient wall of Macepracta, built by the kings of Assyria, and prepared to face the Persian forces. Julian's expedition aimed to conquer Persia and restore Roman dominance in the region. |
|
| 24-4 The province of Assyria, stretching from the Tigris to the Persian Gulf, was known for its fertility and artificial canals. The land produced wheat, barley, and dates, and was dotted with palm groves. The region was also home to numerous towns and villages, built from sun-dried bricks and bitumen. The ancient wall of Macepracta, built by the kings of Assyria, marked the boundary of the province. The Romans, led by Emperor Julian, marched through this region, intent on conquering Persia and restoring Roman dominance. The province's rich resources and strategic location made it a valuable prize. |
|
|
|
25 Reigns Of Jovian & Valentinian, Division Of Empire 7 91.8 1:16:30 2:33
| 25-1 Jovian became emperor after Julian's death. He signed a peace treaty giving up Roman land to Persia. This angered Romans who felt Jovian prioritized safety over honor. Jovian died a few months later. The throne was vacant for ten days. Valentinian was then chosen emperor. He knew the empire was too big for one ruler so he made his brother Valens co-emperor, even though Valens had no experience. |
| 25-2 Before dividing the provinces, Valentinian reformed the empire's administration, inviting public accusations against those who had oppressed subjects under Julian. The praefect Sallust’s integrity was praised, and while Valentinian refused his resignation, many of Julian's favorites were dismissed. Procopius, escaping persecution, eventually led a rebellion but was ultimately betrayed and executed. Valentinian's reign was marked by despotism, harsh punishments, and a brutal crackdown on alleged magical practices. His severe justice hardened him to cruelty, often ordering executions for minor offenses. Valentinian's ferocity extended to enjoying the spectacle of bears devouring criminals, showing his preference for loyal yet ruthless servants. |
|
| 25-3 In calmer moments, Valens and Valentinian displayed virtues akin to those of a father of their country. Valentinian's keen judgment prioritized public interest, reflecting the wisdom of the praefect Sallust. Both emperors maintained a simplicity in their lives, ensuring courtly pleasures did not burden their people. They reformed abuses from Constantius's time, and built on Julian's policies, establishing educational institutions and healthcare in Rome. Valentinian was particularly noted for his impartiality during religious disputes, focusing on governance rather than theological debates, and promoting a general religious tolerance, albeit with strict measures against magic. |
| 25-4 When Valentinian ascended to power through the support of generals and soldiers, his military reputation and discipline were decisive factors. The pressing demand for a colleague reflected the dire state of public affairs, which Valentinian himself knew required more than one man to defend the vast and vulnerable empire. Despite the death of Julian, which emboldened enemies, Valentinian's resolve and military ingenuity maintained stability. He faced numerous threats from various fronts, including Germany, Britain, Africa, the East, and the Danube. Notably, he quelled Germanic invasions, fortified the Rhine frontier, and mitigated Saxon pirate raids, ensuring the empire's security for over a decade. |
|
| 25-5 Six years after Constantine's death, his son Constans visited Britain, facing threats from Scots and Picts. Despite panegyric praise, his achievements were modest. The province suffered from foreign invasions and corrupt governance. The relief provided by Julian was short-lived, and the soldiers' neglect led to desertion and rebellion. Theodosius later restored order, secured Britain, and revitalized the province. Meanwhile, in Africa, the corrupt Count Romanus betrayed the province, leading to revolt. Theodosius, a skilled general, quelled the uprising, but his fate contrasted starkly with Romanus's impunity, reflecting the injustice and political machinations of the Roman court. |
| 25-6 The whole country might have claimed the peculiar name of Mesopotamia, as the two rivers, the Euphrates and Tigris, approach each other. A multitude of artificial canals connected the rivers, intersecting the plain of Assyria. The uses of these canals were various and important, facilitating commerce and irrigation. The soil produced wheat, barley, and dates, and the region was famous for its leather and linen manufactures. The Romans, under Emperor Julian, marched through Assyria, seeking to conquer Persia. The province's wealth, industry, and location made it a valuable prize. |
|
| 25-7 Valentinian, emperor of the West, died after a fit of rage, aged 54, during a campaign against the Quadi. His son Gratian, 17, was next in line for the throne, but a group of generals and ministers sought to install Valentinian's younger son, also Valentinian, as emperor instead. The infant prince was proclaimed emperor at just four years old, with his mother Justina as regent. Gratian, however, accepted the decision and took command of the Western empire, while the younger Valentinian and his mother resided in Italy. Gratian eventually consolidated his power and authority. |
|
|
|
26 Progress of Huns 5 89.7 1:14:45 2:29:30
|
|
3 10
27 Civil Wars, Reign Of Theodosius 5 76.5 1:03:45 2:07:30
| 27-1 Gratian, Roman Emperor, was celebrated for his virtues and accomplishments before the age of 20. However, his reputation declined due to a change in character and conduct. He abandoned his duties, indulging in hunting and lavish displays of wealth. The army, feeling neglected and insulted by his Scythian attire and favorites, revolted. Gratian's forces deserted him, and he was killed by the usurper Maximus. Theodosius, his brother and emperor of the East, chose not to avenge his death, instead accepting Maximus' alliance to avoid further bloodshed and instability in the empire. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
28 Destruction Of Paganism 3 35.4 29:30 59:00
| 28-1 Theodosius, a Christian emperor, abolished Paganism in Rome, establishing Christianity as the dominant religion. The Roman priests, who had once held significant influence, saw their power and privileges eradicated. The temple of Victory, a symbol of Paganism, was removed from the senate, and the altar of Victory was banished. Symmachus, a senator and pontiff, petitioned the emperor to restore the altar, arguing that the ancient rites were essential to the empire's prosperity. However, Ambrose, the archbishop of Milan, opposed Symmachus, and Theodosius ultimately rejected the petition, solidifying Christianity's position in Rome. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 29 Division Of Roman Empire Between Sons Of Theodosius 2 32.3 26:55 53:50
|
30 Revolt Of Goths 5 60.7 50:35 1:41:10
| 30-1 Theodosius' death was followed by a Gothic invasion of the Roman Empire. Alaric, a renowned Gothic leader, marched through Greece, destroying cities and slaughtering inhabitants. He bypassed Thermopylae and captured Athens, imposing a heavy ransom. The Goths then proceeded to Corinth, Argos, and Sparta, leaving a trail of destruction. Stilicho, the Roman general, eventually defeated Alaric but allowed him to escape. Alaric then negotiated a treaty with Constantinople, securing his position as master-general of Eastern Illyricum. He was later proclaimed king of the Visigoths and invaded Italy, sacking several cities and threatening Rome. |
|
| 30-2 Emperor Honorius, consumed by fear, considered fleeing Milan as Alaric approached. Stilicho, his general, resisted this plan, promising to return with an army to confront the Goths. Stilicho hastened to the Rhaetian frontier, where he had dispatched troops, and repressed the enemy's advance. He selected brave youths from the Barbarian tribes, earning their respect. Stilicho then ordered remote Western troops to march to Italy's defense. The Rhine fortresses were abandoned, and Britain's legion was recalled. Alani cavalry joined the emperor's service. Stilicho's prudence and vigor shone, but the empire's weakness was exposed. |
|
|
|
| 30-5 In the Pyrenees, Constantine's ambition found proximity to danger justified. He solidified his throne through the conquest of Spain, where local submission underpinned Gallic praefecture governance. Theodosius's family, however, opposed him not by state or public spirit but by personal zeal. Grateful for honors from their kinsman, they armed slaves and dependents in Lusitania, only to be crushed in the Pyrenees. Honorians, troops negotiated for Spanish war, helped Constantine secure the West. Stilicho's alliance with Alaric, despite Gothic neutrality, aimed at defending Rome from Radagaisus. Stilicho’s fall at Honorius's hand marked the end of an era, the last gasp of Roman military might in Western Europe. |
|
|
31 Invasion Of Italy, Occupation Of Territories By Barbarians 7 94.8 1:19 2:38
|
| 31-2 The legion, which had been stationed to guard the wall of Britain against the Caledonians of the North, was hastily recalled; and a numerous body of the cavalry of the Alani was persuaded to engage in the service of the emperor, who anxiously expected the return of his general. The prudence and vigor of Stilicho were conspicuous on this occasion, which revealed, at the same time, the weakness of the falling empire. The fortresses of the Rhine were abandoned; and the safety of Gaul was protected only by the faith of the Germans, and the ancient terror of the Roman name. |
| 31-3 Fourteen centuries later, recounting the military exploits of Rome's conquerors suffices, without delving into their political motives. Alaric, amidst apparent success, may have sensed a vulnerability or feigned moderation to deceive Honorius's ministers. Seeking peace, he proposed exchanging hostages and treaties, yet his ambitions for military command and territories suggested ulterior motives. Despite setbacks like Olympius's obstinacy and the Senate's protests, Alaric persisted in negotiations, even sparing Rome initially. His sack was mitigated by sparing Christian sanctuaries and treasures, though atrocities occurred. Rome’s fall echoed through history, marked by plunder, arson, and moral quandaries amidst the clash of cultures and religions. |
|
| 31-4 Only one senator perished in the massacre of Rome, but many were reduced to captives and exiles. Barbarians, needing money more than slaves, often set moderate ransoms for prisoners, with the redemption price paid by friends or charity. While captives sold legally could regain freedom, they usually had to serve for five years. Many Italian fugitives, including the noble Proba, fled to Africa. The devastation of Rome spread fear and dislocation, leading some to seek refuge in distant places. The retreat of Alaric’s Goths, though orderly, left Italy in ruins, its prosperity severely diminished by barbarian invasion. |
| 31-5 Adolphus, brother-in-law of the deceased Gothic king, was unanimously elected as the new monarch. Initially driven by ambition to overthrow Rome, Adolphus realized the necessity of laws for a stable state. Embracing a new vision, he sought to restore the Roman Empire’s prosperity with Gothic support, securing an alliance with Rome. His marriage to Placidia, Honorius's sister, furthered his cause. Despite initial resistance, his troops conquered parts of Gaul, but his motivations remained contested. The Gothic influence persisted, marked by wealth and cultural shifts, until Italy's gradual recovery from Gothic invasions, highlighted by significant social and administrative reforms. |
|
| 31-6 Spain's long peace, insulated from Roman enemies by natural and provincial barriers, marked its domestic happiness over 400 years, with few significant historical events. Even Barbarian incursions under Gallienus barely disturbed its tranquility. By the fourth century, cities like Merida, Corduba, and Seville were thriving. Spain's wealth in natural resources bolstered trade and industry, protected under Roman rule. However, with the decline of Rome, the mercenaries of the Pyrenees allowed Barbarian invasions. The subsequent conflicts led to widespread devastation, famine, and pestilence, ultimately dividing Spain among the Suevi, Vandals, and Alani, while some Spaniards preferred Barbarian rule over Roman oppression. |
|
|
|
32 Emperors Arcadius, Eutropius, Theodosius 2 3 47.1 39:15 1:18:30
| 32-1 The division of the Roman Empire between Theodosius's sons marked the establishment of the Eastern Empire, which endured for 1,058 years until the fall of Constantinople to the Turks. The Eastern emperors retained the titles of Caesar and Augustus, claiming succession from the original Roman rulers. Constantinople's splendor rivaled that of Persia, and the city became a center of art, learning, and luxury. Despite this, the empire suffered from corruption and weakened by despotism and superstition. Figures like the eunuch Eutropius exemplified this decay, misusing power, and inciting rebellion, ultimately leading to the decline of Roman authority in the East. |
|
| 32-2 The satirist unfairly demeans history by likening Theodosius's son to a passive animal. Two emotions, fear and love, roused Arcadius. His wife Eudoxia’s pleas and the Barbarian threat led to Eutropius's condemnation. John Chrysostom's sermon saved Eutropius briefly, but he was exiled, recalled, and executed. Gainas revolted, but his army was crushed, leading to his demise. Chrysostom’s efforts against clerical corruption provoked opposition. His firm stance, however, eventually led to his exile and death, his memory later revered. The triumphant return of Chrysostom's relics signified the enduring impact of his virtuous life and eloquence. |
|
|
|
|
|
33 Conquest Of Africa By Vandals 2 27.9 23:30 47
|
| 33-2 Boniface skillfully prolonged the siege of Hippo for fourteen months, and the Vandals retreated due to famine. Placidia sought aid from the Eastern ally, and with combined forces, Boniface battled the Vandals, losing Africa. Genseric’s slow conquest of Africa faced internal conspiracies and revolts. Carthage, a wealthy metropolis, fell to Genseric, who imposed harsh reforms. He punished resistance severely and redistributed lands among his followers. The fall of Carthage displaced many, like Maria, a noblewoman sold into slavery but later rescued. The legend of the Seven Sleepers, a tale of miraculous preservation, reflects on the profound changes in human affairs over time. |
|
|
|
|
|
34 Attila 2 42.5 35:25 1:10:50
| 34-1 The Western world faced oppression from the Goths and Vandals, fleeing the Huns. The Huns, despite spreading from the Volga to the Danube, were plagued by internal discord. Under Attila, they became a global terror, degrading their dignity for spoils and waging war against both East and West. Emperors struggled to repel them, often yielding to their demands. Attila's empire, marked by fear and superstition, spanned Germany to Scythia. Despite vast conquests, Attila's forces, lacking the art of siege warfare, relied on overwhelming invasions. His brutal campaigns and strategic cunning positioned him as a formidable adversary, remembered as the Scourge of God. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
35 Invasion By Attila 3 45.1 37:35 1:15:10
|
| 35-2 Attila, in a gesture of chivalric zeal, supported his allies the Vandals and Franks while romantically professing love for Honoria, sister of Valentinian III, elevating her to Augusta. She, however, detested her status, and, seeking love, sent Attila a ring, proposing marriage. He rebuffed her advances and demanded her and her share of the empire. His invasion spurred Aetius and Theodoric, and a colossal battle ensued at Chalons, devastating both sides. Attila retreated, and despite threats from the Franks, ended his conquests. His death shortly after marked the end of his empire and the era of Huns in Europe. |
|
| 35-3 Attila's Gallic campaign's failure didn't diminish his spirit, forces, or reputation. He pressed Honoria for marriage and riches, but faced resistance. He invaded Italy, besieged Aquileia with unskilled Barbarians, yet sustained by Gothic courage. After a failed siege, a stork's flight inspired him to renew the assault. Aquileia fell, followed by ruthless plunder across Lombardy. Attila's royal palace in Milan mocked Roman emperors, Venice rose from refugee islands, thriving via maritime commerce. Attila, seeing his might as predestined, died after wedding Ildico, and his empire crumbled posthumously. Valentinian's weak rule ended violently, Rome's decline foreshadowed by corrupt elites and merciless taxes. |
|
|
|
|
36 Total Extinction Of Western Empire 5 74.1 1:02:45 2:05:30
| 36-1 The loss of provinces from the Ocean to the Alps diminished Rome's glory. Africa's separation deepened Rome's poverty. Vandals seized lands, cut subsidies, worsened conditions. Genseric, skilled in naval arts, expanded in the Mediterranean, conquered Sicily, Palermo. Rome’s defenses faltered. Maximus, a noble born of the Anician family, enjoyed fortune, art, and manners, served thrice as Praetorian prefect, twice consul, and patrician. Maximus, after seizing power, was killed. Genseric sacked Rome, plundered temples, took Eudoxia captive, pillaged for 14 days. Avitus, aided by Theodoric, assumed power. Theodoric conquered Spain, defeated the Suevi, took Braga, halted by winds, returned to Pyrenees, and sacked Pollentia and Astorga. |
|
|
| 36-3 Genseric, without a personal interview, understood his foe's genius. His fraud and delay failed against Majorian's resolve to annihilate Carthage, distrustful of his subjects' valor. Guided by traitors, Genseric decimated Majorian's fleet. Majorian, undeterred, negotiated peace but was betrayed by Ricimer. Ricimer, scorning virtue, anointed Libius Severus, who fell swiftly. Marcellinus resisted, protected Sicily, waged war. Aegidius, equal to Rome's heroes, defied Ricimer, ruled Gaul. Italy, under Ricimer, suffered Vandal attacks. Leo's rise marked East-West tensions. Anthemius, esteemed for lineage, ruled Rome. Yet, suspicions of religious tolerance marred his reign, though he achieved peace, hosting Lupercalia. His reign saw the decline of ancient Roman customs under Christian rule. |
|
| 36-4 In his public statements, Emperor Leo assumed paternal authority over his son Anthemius, with whom he shared rule. Leo avoided personal risk in an African campaign due to his situation and character. The East mobilized to oust the Vandals from Italy and the Mediterranean. Heraclius launched a successful attack from Egypt, Thebais, and Libya, utilizing Arab support. After initial losses, Genseric sought peace, but Marcellinus's reconciliation with the empires alarmed him. Leo funded the African expedition with considerable wealth but at the expense of cities. Despite early success, Basiliscus's fleet was devastated by Vandals. Genseric then expanded his rule over Italy, Greece, and Asia. |
|
| 36-5 During the vacancy of Italy's throne, lawless Barbarians roamed freely. Empress Verina tried to boost her family's power by marrying her niece to Julius Nepos, who ruled Dalmatia. Byzantine court's indecisiveness delayed Anthemius and Olybrius' successor. Glycerius briefly claimed power, then became bishop. Nepos, gaining approval from Senate, Italians, and Gauls, seemed promising but failed within a year. His reign’s sole notable event was ceding Auvergne to Visigoths. Orestes led Barbarian allies against Nepos, who fled to Dalmatia, leaving Italy to Orestes and his son Augustulus. Orestes rejected Barbarian demands, prompting Odoacer's rise, ending Nepos and Augustulus' rule, marking Rome's end in the West. |
|
|
37 1-3 Kirsten Ferreri 4 49.5 41:15 1:22:30
| 37-1 The intertwining of civil and ecclesiastical realms impels me to recount Christianity's evolution: from inception to persecution, establishment, divisions, triumph, and eventual corruption. Delayed but pivotal events include: I. Monasticism's rise, where ascetic Christians renounced worldly pleasures for eternal reward, establishing communities and inspiring respect. II. The conversion of northern Barbarians, shaping Europe's religious and social fabric. Antony's solitary desert life in Egypt heralded monasticism, spreading widely through Athanasius to Rome and beyond. Monks influenced politics, society, and spiritual leadership, impacting an empire grappling with change. Their austere lives, from Egypt's deserts to Gaul's monasteries, marked an enduring era of devotion amid societal upheaval. |
|
| 37-2 Pleasure and guilt were equated by monks, who found that strict fasting and sparse diets curbed impure desires. Their abstinence varied, with festive Pentecost balanced by austere Lent; new monasteries waned in fervor. Egyptian monks were content with 12 ounces of bread split into two meals, sometimes indulging in cheese, fruit, or Nile fish. Wine was scant, replaced by beer up north. Monks renounced possessions, lived by labor, did menial tasks, and traded surplus goods. Monastic studies leaned towards superstition; some monks made wooden goods. Charity swelled monastic coffers, but luxury and laxity followed, fading their virtue. |
|
|
|
|
|
38 6 87.1 1:12:35 2:15:10
| 38-1 The Gauls, who had reluctantly accepted Roman rule, received a stern lesson from Vespasian's lieutenant, vividly portrayed by Tacitus: "Under Roman protection, Gaul found peace from internal strife and foreign threats. Though losing independence, you gained Roman citizenship and its benefits. Safety comes with armies, which you help sustain. Rome defends the Rhine from Germanic tribes craving Gaul's wealth. If Rome falls, so will you, to savage masters. The fall of the Western Empire saw Gaul melted into the citizenry, contending with Germanic conquerors. The Gauls, though cultured, faced derision from northern tribes. Peace meant loyalty to Rome for survival amid turmoil and barbarism." |
|
| 38-2 The intrigue of his brother and Godegesil’s betrayal ensured Clovis’s victory. Gundobald, challenged and lacking allies, fled to Avignon after yielding at Langres. Clovis pursued peace with tribute and alliances, yet Gundobald’s cruelty marred it. Sigismond, his son, a Catholic saint, fell victim to Sigismond’s remorseful crime, symbolizing the dynasty’s tragic end. Clovis, the Gothic threat subdued, turned to Alaric. Their alliance frayed; war followed. Poitiers sealed the Franks’ dominance, expanded to Spain and beyond, ruling Gaul. Their ascension echoed through history, melding Roman law and German customs, forging a realm that, despite conflicts, heralded the birth of medieval France. |
|
|
| 38-4 Before the Austrasian army retreated from Auvergne, Theodoric exacted pledges of future loyalty from the locals, restrained by fear rather than goodwill. Noble youths, sons of senators, were sent to Theodoric as hostages. Attalus, one such hostage, ended up tending horses in Treves after being enslaved. Gregory, his grandfather, attempted to ransom him, but Theodoric demanded an exorbitant sum. Attalus escaped with Leo's help, who worked as a cook. Leo's culinary skill impressed Theodoric, leading to Attalus and Leo's eventual escape to Langres. Gregory freed Leo and gave him land. This tale, likely shared by Attalus, highlights the Franks' impact on Gaul's Roman inhabitants. |
|
| 38-5 In a century marked by unending war, British defenders showed courage and some skill, yet their champions' memories are nearly forgotten. Ambrosius Aurelian, descended from Roman nobility, blended modesty with valor. Arthur, prince of the Silures and king of Britain, gained fame through twelve victories against the Angles and Saxons, but suffered later from ingratitude and domestic woes. The Norman conquerors revived his legend, adding embellishments. Saxon conquest was brutal, desecrating churches and eradicating Roman influence. Britons faced massacre and cultural annihilation. Despite this, remnants of British Christianity endured in Wales and Armorica, preserving Celtic language and traditions against Saxon dominance. |
| 38-6 After Greece fell to Rome, Greeks attributed Rome's triumphs not to merit but fortune. A wiser Greek historian, however, revealed Rome’s true greatness: citizens’ fidelity to state and each other, educated by honor and virtue. Patricians and plebeians balanced power, uniting freedom with senatorial wisdom and magisterial authority. Each citizen swore ten years’ military service, perpetually fueling Rome’s legions. Rome’s military superiority, guided by political prudence and courage, shattered nations. Yet immoderate greatness brought decline—prosperity bred decay, and external threats dissolved Rome’s strength. Rome's fall wasn’t a surprise; that it endured so long was. Its legacy, while tarnished, reshaped Europe’s republics and kingdoms, fostering stability and progress amid lingering uncertainties. |
|
|
|
4 10
39 Gothic Kingdom Of Italy 3 42.7 35:35 1:10:10
| 39-1 After the fall of the Roman Empire in the West, an obscure period ensued until Justinian's reign, marked by Zeno, Anastasius, and Justin as rulers of Constantinople. Meanwhile, Italy thrived under Theodoric the Ostrogoth, descendant of Amali royalty. Born near Vienna, Theodoric grew under Gothic leadership amidst wars and alliances with Byzantium. Educated in Constantinople, he returned to Italy at 18, leading the Ostrogoths. His early triumphs, conflicts, and ultimate rule over Italy were overshadowed by tensions with the Byzantines and internal strife. Theodoric's reign blended Gothic strength with Roman governance, impacting Italy's fate profoundly. |
|
| 39-2 Theodoric's reign marked a turning point among Western Barbarians. His conquests initially instilled fear, but his pursuit of peace soon earned respect. His wise rule mediated conflicts, promoting civility and impressing foreign envoys with his wisdom and generosity. Despite military successes, he governed justly, stabilizing regions from Rhaetia to Dalmatia. His alliances spanned Europe, forging ties with Frankish, Burgundian, Visigothic, Vandal, and Thuringian royalty. Theodoric's governance extended from Sicily to the Danube, uniting Goths and Romans under a shared prosperity that, while brief, could have set a lasting precedent if not for subsequent events. His legacy bridged the gap between Roman tradition and Gothic rule, yet fell short of transformative legislation, leaving Italy vulnerable to future upheavals. |
|
| 39-3 Theodoric's reign exemplified by Ravenna's residence and Gothic architecture coin image. Italy's cities flourished with churches, aqueducts, and palaces. His Arian faith and tolerance for Catholics ensured peace. Italy's religious strife continued against Jews, amid Theodoric's troubled end, stained by injustices and philosophical contributions. Boethius, a noble philosopher, contrasted fate's cruelty with the Consolation of Philosophy in Pavia's tower. Accused unjustly by Theodoric, Boethius faced death defiantly. Theodoric's deathbed remorse and divided legacy closed his complex rule, marked by prosperity, cultural contributions, and enduring controversies. |
|
|
|
|
40 Reign Of Justinian 5 84.9 1:10:25 2:20:50
| 40-1 Justinian, born near modern Sofia to Barbarian parents, owed his rise to his uncle Justin, who abandoned farming for soldiering with Justin. Recruited into the guards, Justin rose through Isaurian and Persian wars, finally seizing power from Amantius with bribes meant for others. With no rivals, Justin became emperor, supported by soldiers, clergy, people, and provincials. Although inexperienced, Justinian’s nephew was cultivated for succession. After Justin’s death, Justinian, with Theodora, ruled, cementing power, suppressing rivals like Vitalian, and engaging in religious and administrative reforms. Procopius' writings reflect Justinian's reign's complexities, including wars, laws, and the powerful influence of Theodora. |
|
|
|
| 40-4 Dishonor ultimately tarnished Justinian's character, yet ministers reaped guilt and profit, Tribonian's legal reforms notwithstanding. John of Cappadocia's corruption overshadowed his talents. Despite accusations of magic and pagan beliefs, his wealth rose on ruin. Theodora feuded with Justinian over him, orchestrating his downfall. Even in exile, his life was tormented. Justinian's ambitious building projects, like St. Sophia, symbolized empire's might. Engineers vied with Archimedes' legend. Structures adorned with marble, gold, and mosaics impressed. Justinian's legacy in fortifications spanned Europe, Asia Minor, and the Hellespont, yet failed against marauding Isaurians. His reign, a blend of grandeur and vulnerability, shaped Byzantium's fate. |
|
| 40-5 Justinian's strategic measures spanned from Aethiopia to the Tanais mouth. He fortified Crimea for Goths and Lazica, now Mingrelia, against Persia. Trebizond received his patronage, securing the Euxine's curve. Chalybians were held by seven forts; Euphrates' source, guarded; Edessa's resistance mythic. Westward, a desert split empires; Persian Huns defeated Perozes. Dara, fortified, defied Persia. Gates at Derbend and Caucasus barred Scythians; Gog-Magog wall spanned Daghestan. Athens' decline came under Christian hegemony; Persian retreat humbled Proclus' Platonic optimism. Consuls' pageantry waned; Justinian ended their lineage, favoring festivity limits and eras. Philosophy faded, as did consul nostalgia, post-Justinian, as law dismissed a tradition, eclipsing Greek thought's classical sway. |
|
|
41 Conquests Of Justinian, Character of Balisarius 5 89 1:14 2:28
| 41-1 When Justinian ascended the throne, about fifty years after the Western Empire fell, the kingdoms of the Goths and Vandals had firmly established themselves in Europe and Africa. Barbarian conquests had erased Roman victories, legitimizing their rule through time, treaties, and oaths of fealty. Christianity and experience dispelled Rome's divine claims. Constantinople, inheriting Rome’s mantle, sought to reclaim the West from heretics and Barbarians. Justinian, after costly Persian wars, purchased a truce, enabling him to focus on Africa. Hilderic, a Vandal king favorable to Catholics, was ousted by Gelimer, triggering Justinian’s intervention. Belisarius, renowned for his military prowess, led the Byzantine expedition to Africa, battling logistical challenges, rebellious Huns, and Vandal luxuries. |
|
| 41-2 "As soon as the tumult had subsided, Belisarius pitched his camp on the field of victory, near Carthage, known as Decimus. Marching cautiously the next day, he halted at Carthage's gates, allowing a night's rest to prevent disorder. Carthage celebrated with torches, opening its gates joyously to Roman liberators. The Vandals sought refuge in churches; Roman fleets arrived, securing a nearby harbor. Belisarius addressed his troops, urging respect for the Africans. Order prevailed; commerce thrived. Belisarius restored Carthage’s fortifications swiftly, securing Africa and appointing officials. Gelimer’s defeat and capture followed, completing Roman conquest and Justinian’s ambitions in Africa." |
|
| 41-3 Theodatus, despite his noble lineage, lacked martial skill and courage. Influenced by philosophers like Plato and Cicero, he remained plagued by avarice and fear. Acquiring his scepter through ingratitude and murder, he tarnished his reign further by submitting to Belisarius after Gelimer’s fall. Byzantine pressure and Peter's eloquence coerced Theodatus into ignominious treaties, reducing him to beg senate honors and Roman consent for any judgment. Ultimately, for a pension, he relinquished the Gothic throne, retiring to philosophy and farming. Though he secretly offered a second treaty, Justinian accepted his abdication, and Theodatus met a tragic end fleeing Gothic judgment. |
|
| 41-4 Belisarius, determined to withstand the siege, ensured Rome's provisions against famine by importing grain from Sicily and requisitioning crops from Campania and Tuscany. Aqueducts were blocked, so he used river vessels and makeshift mills. Despite losing Porto, he fortified Rome against Gothic incursions. He managed internal dissent, rotated guards, and intercepted traitors, like Pope Sylverius. Antonina influenced papal appointments, possibly through simony. Belisarius notified Justinian of successes and needed reinforcements. Despite internal strife and external threats, including the Franks, Belisarius reclaimed Milan and repelled the Goths, ending their siege of Rome effectively. |
|
| 41-5 Belisarius, after securing Italy, focused on besieging Osimo. Nearly struck by an arrow, he was saved by a guard who lost a hand. The Goths of Osimo, with those from Faesulae and the Cottian Alps, were among the last to resist, earning his respect. Refusing safe conduct, he allowed their honorable surrender, saving their wealth and offering service in Persia. Despite Gothic numbers, only famine subdued Ravenna. Ambassadors brought an unwelcome peace treaty from Constantinople, dividing Italy. Belisarius, alone and disobeying, rejected it, aiming to lead Vitiges captive. The Goths, seeing no other choice, offered Ravenna and kingship to Belisarius, who accepted, triumphing without battle. |
|
|
42 State Of Barbaric World 4 65.4 41:40 1:23:20
| 42-1 The passage provides a detailed historical account, emphasizing the military exploits and cultural characteristics of various ancient peoples. It highlights the rise and accomplishments of figures like Belisarius and Narses, contrasting the prowess of Roman armies with their internal challenges. It also explores the impact of Barbarian invasions, focusing on groups like the Gepidae, Bulgarians, and Sclavonians, who clashed with and sometimes undermined Roman authority. The narrative spans diverse regions, from Italy to Asia, illustrating the complex dynamics of power, loyalty, and conflict during the era. Ultimately, it underscores the turbulent transitions and struggles that marked the decline of the Roman Empire. |
|
| 42-2 In their swift conquests, the Turks subdued the Ogors by the River Til, earning the moniker "Black" from dark waters or forests. The Ogor khan and many perished; survivors accepted Turkish strength. 20,000 chose exile, journeying via Volga, mistakenly likened to Avars, spreading fear. They learned of Rome’s wealth from Alani princes, seeking it via Lazica. At Constantinople, awed by strange Huns’ attire, they requested alliance for gifts and aid. Justinian, aged and weary, appeased with luxuries, pondered their use against foes. Despite distrust, Turks marched to Danube and Elbe, subduing Bulgarians and Slavs. Chagan courted alliance; Persian rivalry soured it, but commerce flourished, uniting East and West. |
|
| 42-3 Kobad's son faced war with Constantine's successor, leading to a truce mediated by Justinian. Chosroes accepted gold for peace, with Persia guarding Caucasus gates and Dara spared as a general's seat. Justinian used peace to conquer Africa, sharing spoils with Chosroes. Belisarius's triumphs alarmed Chosroes, who incited Almondar against Rome. Persia attacked Dura and Syria, pillaging cities. Antioch fell despite Chosroes's feigned remorse. His campaign despoiled cities, spared churches, and enjoyed local customs. Chosroes bathed in the Mediterranean, controlled Euphrates crossings, and settled at new Chosro-Antioch. His ambition threatened Jerusalem and Byzantium but stalled against Belisarius's return, securing Rome and sparing East. His Colchian and Lazic wars balanced trade from India via Caspian and Euxine. |
|
|
|
|
43 State Of Barbaric World 4 65.4 41:40 1:23:20
| 43-1 The review from the Danube to the Nile exposes Roman weakness, questioning their empire's expansion when they struggle with defense. Justinian’s conquests falter due to age, harming Africa and Italy. His minister's taxes exploit Africa, provoking mutinies. Roman soldiers, marrying Vandals, claim inheritance, fueling rebellion. Arians resist Byzantine religious laws. Stoza's rebellion in Africa prompts chaos, despite Roman victories. A brutal war ensues, Africa’s decline quickens. Gothic Italy falls; Totila conquers Rome, leaving famine and despair. Belisarius, recalled, struggles to aid Rome. Bessas, Gothic governor, profits from Rome's suffering. Justinian’s chaotic victories leave Africa and Italy devastated, drained by war and suffering. |
|
| 43-2 Totila’s strategic genius was evident in every obstacle he set for Belisarius. Ninety furlongs from Rome, he erected a bridge-tower system over the Tiber, protected by iron chains and archers. Belisarius, undeterred, employed cavalry diversion, while infantry and provisions were ferried in fortified boats. Leading a fleet upstream, they breached the bridge, setting a tower ablaze. Rome was saved but for the neglect of Bessas and Isaac. Famine weakened Rome, and Isaurian sentinels betrayed it to Totila. Despite this, Belisarius reclaimed Rome, fortifying it against Totila’s siege and rescuing its remaining populace. His subsequent campaigns, though marred by setbacks, underscored his enduring military brilliance and unwavering commitment to Justinian’s cause. |
|
| 43-3 Narses acted swiftly and decisively, driven by prudence amidst a fragile political landscape. Each day's delay added to the already steep costs of war, risking unrest among nations unfamiliar with discipline. Totila, sensing internal dissent and Papal aspirations, gambled the Gothic kingdom on swift action. Despite treaty talks, he moved to surprise Narses, confident in his warrior skills. At Taginae, Narses' strategy and disciplined troops prevailed; Totila fell in battle, symbolizing Gothic defeat. Narses' subsequent campaigns solidified Byzantine rule in Italy, despite lingering Gothic resistance and subsequent Barbarian incursions, marking a decisive era in Italy's history under Roman sway. |
|
| 43-4 About two years after Belisarius' last victory, Emperor Justinian returned from a Thracian journey, plagued by a head pain. Rumors of his death spread, causing panic: citizens looted bakers' shops, homes were shut. Senators convened at noon, ordering a city-wide illumination for the emperor's health. Guards mutinied over pay; fires and quakes sparked disorder. Orthodox and heretics clashed violently. Marcellus and Sergius plotted Justinian's assassination at a royal banquet, but Sergius betrayed them. Belisarius was wrongly implicated, saved only by his fame. Freed after unjust imprisonment, he died within months. Justinian's ingratitude seized Belisarius' wealth; his widow Antonina founded a convent. Justinian, a mixed ruler, sought glory but lost love. |
|
|
|
44 Idea Of Roman Jurisprudence 8 87.7 1:13:05 2:26:10
| 44-1 In the notes to this chapter, I consulted: I. newly-discovered Institutes of Gaius, (Gaii Institutiones, ed. Goeschen, Berlin, 1824,) and other Roman law fragments, (Codicis Theodosiani Fragmenta inedita, ab Amadeo Peyron. Turin, 1824.) II. History of Roman Law by Professor Hugo, in French translation by M. Jourdan. Paris, 1825. III. Savigny, Geschichte des Romischen Rechts im Mittelalter, 6 bande, Heidelberg, 1815. IV. Walther, Romische Rechts-Geschichte, Bonn, 183. I am particularly indebted to an edition of the French translation of this chapter by Professor Warnkonig, published at Liege, 18. I have included almost all these notes, noted by 'W.' |
| 44-2 The Twelve Tables garnered profound reverence among Romans, extolled by Cicero for their wisdom and antiquity. "They charm with old words and ancient customs, imparting sound principles of governance and ethics," he lauded. Tully, with ardor or sincerity, hailed Rome's civil prudence over Greek philosophy. Preserved from Gaulish destruction, they persisted to Justinian's time, partly restored by modern scholars. Yet, besieged by new laws after five centuries, they waned, eclipsed by vast senatorial acts. The Decemvirs' approval by wealth-weighted centuries gave way to plebeian power through tribunes, yet secret ballot accelerated chaos. Augustus curbed assemblies, birthing Senate's legislative sway, enduring till Justinian's codification. |
|
| 44-3 Among savage nations, the absence of written language was partially compensated by visual symbols, crucial for recording public and personal events. Early Roman jurisprudence resembled a pantomime: words synchronized with gestures, where procedural errors could nullify substantial claims. Marriage's unity was marked by fire and water; divorce, by returning keys of household governance. Freeing a son or slave involved a gentle cheek tap; a stolen goods chase required a linen towel to avoid women’s gaze. Roman legal actions were theatrical: touching a witness’s ear, seizing an adversary’s neck, or casting earth for disputed land. This arcane legal dance persisted until revealed, reforming into a more coherent civil code. |
| 44-4 When Justinian ascended the throne, reforming Roman jurisprudence was vital yet challenging. Centuries of legal texts filled thousands of volumes, inaccessible to all but the wealthiest and most learned. The language barrier further hindered justice in Greek provinces. Justinian, an Illyrian with early legal training, chose scholars to assist. Tribonian, a controversial figure, shaped his era with legal reforms, despite accusations of impiety and greed. Justinian’s Codex Justinianus, Digest, and Institutes, though criticized for omissions and alterations, unified and preserved Roman law for future generations, underpinning his legacy as a pivotal legal reformer of the Eastern Roman Empire. |
|
| 44-5 The distinction of ranks and persons is crucial for balanced government. In France, liberty survives through nobles. In England, 200 families form the second legislature branch. Genoa, Venice, and Rome thrived via patricians, plebeians. Democratic equality blurs despotism and democracy; respect for ancestral wealth and titles persists. Justinian’s monarchy eroded Roman distinctions; his laws affirmed masters’ rights over slaves, gradually easing servitude. Roman paternal dominance extended to life, inheritance, until Numa’s reforms. Matrimonial law evolved; women gained rights, albeit slowly. Roman marriage, initially stringent, relaxed by Christian influence. Divorce and remarriage rights expanded but faced regulation. Incest prohibition varied. Concubinage provided alternative family structures, endorsed for centuries. |
| 44-6 Guardianship in Roman law entrusted an orphan's person and property to a friend or nearest paternal relatives. If none were available, a praetor appointed a guardian. Guardianship lasted until puberty; then, a curator managed the ward's affairs until age 25. Women's tutelage persisted due to ancient laws. Property rights originated from prior occupancy and labor, extending to cultivated fields. As society evolved, monopolies formed, defended by law. Inheritance favored equality among children, with collateral succession based on kinship degrees. Testaments allowed arbitrary property distribution, but heirs could contest unfair disinheritance. Trusts ensured testators' wishes were honored. |
|
| 44-7 The Romans worshipped the goddess of faith through their actions, and were known for fulfilling obligations, though a naked pact or promise did not create a civil obligation without legal form. Real obligations were created by delivering a thing, requiring restitution. Contracts of sale, location, partnership, and commission involved various obligations. Interest rates varied, with usury discouraged but practiced. Private injury led to a personal right of action. Theft was punished by civil action, while personal injuries were compensated. The Twelve Tables were harsh, but later laws moderated penalties. Roman criminal law evolved with civil obligations and the preservation of social order. |
| 44-8 The new legislation of Constantine’s era, inspired by Christian values, adapted Roman laws to moral standards. Adultery became a capital crime, likened to severe offenses like poison, sorcery, and parricide. Offenders, including those guilty of paederasty, faced drowning, beheading, or burning. Justinian mitigated punishments for female infidelity to penance but harshly persecuted unmanly lust, imposing brutal penalties. Bishops and others often faced unjust accusations and severe punishments. Despite legal reforms, private and public wrongs were harshly punished, and the criminal code evolved, balancing ancient severity with moderated justice. |
|
|
|
45 State Of Italy Under Lombards 3 52.2 43:30 1:27
| 45-1 During Justinian's final years, his mind focused on heavenly matters, neglecting worldly affairs. His death was feared to cause chaos. Seven nephews, raised in princely splendor, awaited his succession. Upon his death, Justin, Vigilantia’s son, was hurriedly crowned by the senate, securing order. Adorned in imperial garments, he was coronated with both military and religious rites. The hippodrome filled with cheering factions. Justin pledged to correct past abuses and revived the consulship. His immediate debt payments displayed his generosity. His wife Sophia later emulated his benevolence, relieving many citizens from debt and usury, despite potential for abuse by fraudsters. |
|
|
| 45-3 The Lombards' appearance changed by the fourth generation, contrasting their shaven heads and long beards with linen garments decorated with broad stripes. Despite their fierce look, they often showed gentleness. Their vices stemmed from ignorance and passion, while their virtues were genuine. Autharis' adventurous courtship of Theudelinda, involving disguises and daring feats, exemplified chivalric romance. After Autharis' death, Theudelinda remained influential, allowing the Lombards to choose kings with wisdom. Lombard laws, recorded and refined over time, balanced justice with pragmatism, offering more equitable governance than other Barbarian kingdoms. Their legislative councils excluded bishops, ensuring laws reflected Barbarian reason. |
|
|
|
|
46 Troubles In Persia 4 75.7 1:03:05 2:06:10
|
| 46-2 While the Roman name revived in the East, Europe's prospects dimmed. The Lombards' departure and Gepidae's ruin left the Avars dominant from the Alps to the Euxine. Baian, their chagan, imitated Attila's character, humbling emperors Justin, Tiberius, and Maurice. The Avars' incursions pressured Europe as Persia threatened Asia. Roman envoys faced contempt from Baian, who demanded extravagant tributes and gifts. Despite their cruelty, the Avars exhibited rare generosity, as with sparing Anchialus. Their reign extended over Hungary, Poland, and Prussia. Maurice's attempt to reform the army led to revolt and his fall, highlighting the challenges of military and diplomatic endeavors. |
|
| 46-3 Phocas' only child married patrician Crispus, and their images were displayed beside the emperor's, offending Phocas. The green faction tribunes, blamed for this, were condemned but spared by popular demand. Crispus doubted Phocas' forgiveness. Discontent spread, and Heraclius, exarch of Africa, defied Phocas, encouraged by Crispus and the senate. Heraclius' son and Nicetas led a rebellion, one by sea, the other by land. Phocas, unprepared, faced imminent defeat. Crispus defected, aiding Heraclius, who captured Phocas. After Phocas' execution, Heraclius was crowned, uniting the empire. Crispus, distrusted, was forced into monastic life by Heraclius, ensuring loyalty. |
|
| 46-4 Amidst the campaign's glories, Heraclius fades from view. He traverses Albania to Media, reaching Casbin and Ispahan. Alarmed, Chosroes recalls forces from the Nile and Bosphorus. Surrounded by three Persian armies, Heraclius' veterans falter, but he rallies them. He repels attacks, divides his troops, and surprises Sarbaraza at Salban. In spring, he crosses the Tigris and informs Constantinople of his success. After battles on the Euphrates and Sarus, Heraclius triumphs. Pursuing victory, he crosses Kurdistan and returns to Sebaste, ending his expedition with acclaim. The empire rejoices in his return and prepares for the next challenges. |
|
|
|
47 Ecclesiastical Discord 6 92.8 1:17:20 2:34:40
| 47-1 After paganism's end, Christians could have relished their victory in peace, but discord brewed within. The Trinity disputes were replaced by those of the Incarnation, causing church scandal and state harm. This chapter will cover a 250-year religious war, the Oriental sects' schism, and the ensuing conflicts. Initially, Ebionites and Nazarenes, practicing Mosaic rites, lacked understanding of Christ's divinity. Their creed was influenced by Jewish prophecy. The Nazarenes acknowledged Christ's virgin birth, while the Ebionites saw Him as purely human. Over time, these disputes grew, leading to significant theological and political divisions within the early Christian church. |
|
|
| 47-3 After the death of the Alexandrian primate, zeal and abuse of victory characterized the Catholics. The monophysite doctrine was rigorously preached, protected by Cyril's sanctity. Eutyches, a monk, was initially a minor figure, but Flavian's actions exposed his heretical views. Eutyches' appeal to a general council, supported by powerful allies, led to the second synod of Ephesus, dominated by Dioscorus. This synod condemned the two-natures doctrine, reinstated Eutyches, and deposed Flavian, who died from injuries inflicted by monks. The synod was later branded as violent and illegitimate, sparking ongoing theological and political conflict. |
|
| 47-4 Justinian, known as a prince, conqueror, and lawgiver, was also a fervent theologian. He endorsed the reverence for saints, bolstered clerical privileges, and sided with the church in disputes. His devotions were rigorous, and he credited saints for his recovery from illness. His reign saw extensive church-building, reflecting both genuine faith and ostentation. Justinian's theological interests led to severe persecutions, demanding conversion or exile for heretics. Despite initial orthodoxy, influenced by his wife Theodora, he later leaned towards Monophysitism. His controversial stance on Christ's nature caused widespread discord, culminating in church councils that defined orthodox Christian doctrine. |
|
| 47-5 Nestorius' heresy quickly faded in his province. By Justinian's reign, Nestorian churches were rare within the Roman Empire but thrived in Persia, spreading to India, China, and beyond, benefiting from Persian tolerance. The Monophysites, led by Severus, initially flourished but faced suppression. Jacobites, under James Baradaeus, maintained their faith despite persecution. Maronites balanced between Nestorians and Eutyches, surviving persecution on Mount Lebanon and maintaining autonomy under Turkish rule. Armenians, influenced by Monophysites, rejected Chalcedon, preserving their distinct faith and thriving in commerce despite persecution. Egyptians resisted Chalcedon, with Monophysites facing suppression but persisting through force and conversion efforts. |
| 47-6 Patriarch Theodosius resisted Justinian’s threats and promises, prioritizing his soul over life or power. He refused the Chalcedonian creed and, after confronting the emperor, ended his days in Egypt. Despite Apollinaris' celebration of Theodosius' death, the Monophysite church continued under new leaders, maintaining a strong presence in Egypt. The Coptic nation rejected Chalcedon and Greek influence, resisting the emperor’s orders outside Alexandria. Chosroes' brief rule provided respite, but Heraclius renewed persecution. The Jacobites, a small, impoverished group in Cairo, survive today. Nubia and Ethiopia, once allies, converted to Islam, abandoning Christianity after centuries of religious and political strife. |
|
|
48 Succession & Characters Of Greek Emperors 5 118.4 1:38:40 3:17:20
|
|
|
| 48-4 John Zimisces, a valiant Armenian warrior, was initially rewarded but later degraded and exiled by the emperor's jealous brother. Secretly visiting Empress Theophano, they plotted Nicephorus's assassination, leading to John's ascent to the throne. After killing Nicephorus, Zimisces was crowned but was admonished by the patriarch to dismiss Theophano. He then ruled justly, winning battles against the Russians and Saracens. Suspiciously, Zimisces died, possibly poisoned. Under his rule, the young emperors, Basil and Constantine, matured but remained under the influence of a minister, until Basil, known for his military prowess, eventually asserted control, continuing Byzantine conquests. |
|
|
|
|
5 10
49 Conquest Of Italy By Franks 6 87.5 1:12:55 2:56:21
| 49-1 In considering the connection between church and state, I have viewed the church as subservient to the state, a principle often neglected. I've avoided speculative theology topics like Gnosticism, predestination, and Eucharistic transformation, focusing instead on the ecclesiastical history that affected the Roman Empire's decline: the spread of Christianity, the Catholic Church's constitution, Paganism's fall, and the Trinity and incarnation controversies. Image worship, fiercely disputed in the 8th and 9th centuries, led to Italy's revolt, the papal temporal power, and the Western Roman Empire's restoration. Initially, Christians opposed images, influenced by Jewish laws and opposition to Greek practices. |
|
|
|
|
| 49-5 The empire of the Franks stretched from the Ebro to the Elbe or Vistula, and from Beneventum to the River Eyder. Charlemagne's influence grew due to Europe's distress and division. British and Irish lands were contested by Saxon and Scottish princes, while Alphonso the Chaste's kingdom shrank to the Asturian mountains. These smaller rulers sought Charlemagne’s alliance, viewing him as the emperor of the West. He maintained equal relations with caliph Harun al Rashid, exchanging gifts and keys to the Holy Sepulchre. Despite preferring the north over the south, his conquests opened Europe to Scandinavian raids. |
| 49-6 Holding remote countries and foreign nations against their will opposes nature and reason. Empires require refined policy and oppression: centralized power, swift communication, fortifications, a regular administration, and a disciplined army to instill fear without causing despair. Unlike this, German Caesars' patrimonial estates were scattered, revenues low, and armies unreliable. Frequent desertions and disease plagued their campaigns in Italy. Amidst this instability, Italian cities revived municipal governments, promoting agriculture, commerce, and liberty. This resurgence, supported by Venice, Pope Alexander III, and the Greek emperor, led to the downfall of oppressive regimes and the establishment of autonomous republics. |
|
|
50 Description Of Arabia & Its Inhabitants 8 116.1 1:36:45 2:56:10
| 50-1 After six hundred years of pursuing the Caesars of Constantinople and Germany, we arrive at Heraclius' reign on the eastern borders of the Greek monarchy. While the state was weakened by the Persian war and religious strife, Mahomet established his rule with the sword and the Koran, leading to the decline of the Eastern empire. The Arabian prophet's genius, his nation's customs, and his religion contributed to this downfall, marking a significant revolution that changed the character of global nations. Arabia's harsh climate and landscape influenced its population's resilience and independence, shaping their unique societal structure. |
| 50-2 The Arab enjoys personal freedom and some societal benefits, without losing natural prerogatives. Each tribe has a leading family, and positions like sheik and emir pass through this lineage, though succession is based on merit. Sometimes, even women command. Tribes unite temporarily for war or form a nation under a supreme emir. If rulers abuse power, they face desertion, maintaining the Arabs' free spirit. Unlike the Yemeni monarchy, cities like Mecca and Medina functioned as republics. Leaders, like Mohammed’s ancestors, ruled by wisdom and integrity, convening assemblies and valuing oratory, reflecting their unique, simpler form of public freedom. |
|
| 50-3 Arabia was free, attracting persecuted sects who sought refuge. The religions of the Sabians, Magians, Jews, and Christians spread across the land. Sabianism, influenced by Chaldaeans and Assyrians, worshiped seven gods tied to planets. Magians overthrew Babylon's altars but suffered under Alexander and foreign rule. Jews settled in Arabia 700 years before Mohammed, and Christians, including Catholics and various sects, established churches. Arabs freely chose or created personal religions, blending local superstition with advanced theology. The unity of God was a fundamental belief, and the Bible, translated into Arabic, was accepted by both Jews and Christians. |
| 50-4 The communication of ideas requires similar thought and language: a philosopher's discourse would fail on a peasant. Yet, the gap between finite and infinite minds is greater. Hebrew prophets, apostles, and evangelists used reason and memory in their inspired works, evident in the diverse styles of the Bible. Mahomet, however, claimed to be a humble editor of the Koran, considered uncreated and eternal, revealed by Gabriel. His followers recorded it on palm leaves and bones. After his death, the Koran was compiled, asserting a uniform text. Mahomet's mission relied on the Koran's merit, challenging others to match its beauty. |
|
| 50-5 The people of Mecca, hardened by superstition and envy, despised Mahomet's reform efforts. His uncle, Abu Taleb, defended him against the Koreishites, who saw Mahomet's teachings as impious. Despite their threats and demands, Abu Taleb protected Mahomet until his death. Following Abu Taleb’s death, Mahomet faced increasing threats and plotted escape. He fled Mecca with Abubeker, evading assassins. In Medina, he was warmly received, establishing a base for his growing following. Mahomet's early followers, known as Mohagerians and Ansars, were bound by a fraternity, ensuring unity. His military and spiritual leadership began shaping the nascent Islamic community. |
| 50-6 Mahomet initially chose Jerusalem for prayer, hoping for Jewish support, but their rejection turned his friendship to enmity. He besieged and expelled the Jewish Kainoka tribe and confronted other Jewish tribes, who conspired against him. After their defeats, Mahomet's forces grew, leading to the conquest of Mecca. Despite opposition, Mecca submitted, and idols were destroyed. Subsequent battles solidified his control over Arabia. Mahomet's death led to mourning and the rise of Abu Bakr as leader. Balancing Mahomet's virtues and flaws is complex; his early piety evolved into political ambition, yet he believed his actions served a divine mission. |
|
| 50-7 Mahomet rejected royal pomp, performing household chores himself. He maintained a simple diet, often going weeks without a fire on his hearth. Despite the Koran's limits on polygamy, he had multiple wives, citing divine dispensation. His favorite wife, Ayesha, married him at nine. His attempts to conceive heirs mostly failed, with only his daughter Fatima's descendants surviving. After his death, disputes over his succession led to ongoing conflicts among Muslims. Ali, his son-in-law, was favored by some but faced opposition. The caliphate's first rulers were praised for their virtue, but political and religious discord continued to plague the Muslim community. |
| 50-8 Ali's martial activity remained undiminished by age and contemplation. However, he displayed rashness and neglected to secure the allegiance of Telha and Zobeir. They revolted, taking control of Bassora and demanded vengeance for Othman's blood. Ayesha, the prophet's widow, joined them, opposing Ali. In the Battle of the Camel, Ali defeated the rebels, with Telha and Zobeir killed. Ayesha was captured but respectfully sent back to Medina. Ali then faced Moawiyah in a prolonged conflict. Despite initial victories, Ali's forces faltered, leading to a truce. Eventually, Ali was assassinated, his burial site remaining secret to avoid desecration. |
|
|
|
51 Conquests By Arabs 9 127 1:50:50 3:25:56
| 51-1 The death of Mahomet signaled a return to independence for the Arabs, shaking the foundations of his nascent power and religion. His initial followers, who had shared his hardships, stayed loyal, but many new converts were driven by force or prosperity. The tribes' historical feuds and diverse beliefs challenged unity and obedience to Islam's precepts. Rebellions arose, but Caliph Abubeker quelled them with military might. In Yemen, the self-proclaimed prophet Moseilama's defeat solidified Islam's dominance. The early caliphs focused on justice and humility rather than personal gain, maintaining discipline and unity through prudent governance, thus expanding the Islamic empire successfully. |
| 51-2 After the defeat of Cadesia, the Persians' morale crumbled, leading to the swift conquest of Ctesiphon by the Saracens. Believing their end was near, Persian resistance faltered, allowing Said, Omar's lieutenant, to capture the city. The victorious Arabs, overwhelmed by the immense treasures found, shouted in religious fervor. Omar redistributed these spoils, showing his disregard for opulence. Ctesiphon, eventually abandoned, fell into decay, and the new capital, Kufa, rose nearby, sustained by veteran soldiers. Subsequent victories at Jalula and Nehavend solidified Arab control, and the last Sassanian king, Yezdegerd, met his end while fleeing. |
|
| 51-3 One of Syria's provinces, east of the Jordan, was called Arabia by the Romans. The Saracens justified their invasion as a national right. This trade-rich region, fortified by emperors, included cities like Gerasa, Philadelphia, and Bosra. Familiar with the road from Medina, the Arabs besieged Bosra. Caled, with 1,500 horsemen, saved his comrades and led the attack, capturing the city through a traitorous governor. The conquest of Bosra encouraged them to besiege Damascus. Despite fierce resistance, Damascus fell after 70 days. The city’s fall was partly due to internal betrayal and the relentless Arab siege. |
| 51-4 The conquerors of Damascus, informed of the annual fair at Abyla, planned an expedition. Abdallah, with 500 horsemen, led the attack on the fair, which attracted Jews, Christians, Greeks, and Armenians, and was guarded by 5,000 horsemen. Despite their small numbers, the Saracens charged the enemy, nearly overwhelmed, until Caled's timely arrival turned the tide. The Christians were defeated, leaving behind riches, including merchandise, money, and the governor's daughter. Laden with spoils, the Saracens returned to Damascus. A hermit, after a brief confrontation with Caled, was spared and left amidst the devastation. |
|
| 51-5 Syria, enriched by trade, fertile lands, and a temperate climate, had numerous wealthy cities from David's era to Heraclius. Despite Persian war ravages, Syria attracted the desert tribes. Key cities included Damascus, Aleppo, and Antioch, each with strategic importance. The Saracens, led by Caled and Abu Obeidah, swiftly conquered these regions using military prowess and strategic truces. The siege of Jerusalem lasted four months, ending with a capitulation ratified by Caliph Omar. The conquest continued, with Aleppo and Antioch falling next. Heraclius, unable to defend Syria, fled, leaving the region to the Saracens' control. |
| 51-6 The sieges and battles of six campaigns claimed many thousands of Moslems, who died cheerfully as martyrs. An Arabian youth expressed their faith, saying he sought God’s favor and believed martyrs' spirits would reside in paradise. The faithful captives showed resilience, refusing malice of infidels. Caliph Omar, though austere, was compassionate, advising moderation in victory. A deadly plague soon struck, killing 25,000 Saracens. Syria then became the stronghold of the Ommiyah dynasty, supporting the caliphs' empire. The Saracens expanded their conquests north to Cilicia, east to the Euphrates and Tigris, and west to the Mediterranean, with maritime dominance reaching Cyprus and Rhodes. |
|
| 51-7 The fate of the Alexandrian library, as described by Abulpharagius, is notable. Amrou, curious and liberal, conversed with John Philoponus, who requested the library as a gift. Amrou sought the caliph Omar's consent, who replied, "If these writings agree with the book of God, they are useless; if they disagree, they are pernicious." Consequently, the library was burned, fueling baths for six months. Scholars lament the loss, but some, like the author, question the veracity and impact of the event, noting that significant works of antiquity have survived despite numerous historical devastations. |
| 51-8 From 698-709, the Greeks were expelled, but the Arabians did not yet control the country. The Moors, led by Queen Cahina, resisted the Arab invaders with great enthusiasm. The veteran bands of Hassan were overwhelmed, forcing the Arab leader to retreat to Egypt for five years, awaiting reinforcements. Queen Cahina proposed demolishing cities and burying treasures to deter Arab conquest, leading to widespread destruction from Tangier to Tripoli. However, Cahina's efforts ultimately failed, and she was slain in battle. The Saracens resumed their conquest of Africa, ultimately subjugating the region and incorporating it into the Islamic Caliphate. |
|
| 51-9 Musa, envious of Tarik's rapid success, feared there would be nothing left to conquer. Leading 18,000 troops, he landed in Spain, met by Count Julian. Despite some remaining resistance from Goths in Seville and Merida, Musa's forces prevailed. After capturing Merida, Musa met Tarik in Toledo, where tensions rose, leading to Tarik's imprisonment. Musa continued his conquest, reaching as far as Carcassonne and Narbonne, before being recalled by the Caliph. Musa's return to Damascus displayed immense spoils, but he was tried and humiliated, eventually dying in disgrace. His family faced execution, ending his once-prominent legacy. |
|
|
52 More Conquests By Arabs 5 78.1 1:05:05 2:14:50
| 52-1 When the Arabs first issued from the desert, they were surprised at their success. As they advanced to the Indus and the Pyrenees, their astonishment grew at any resistance. Soldiers' confidence can be excused; even historians marvel at how church and state survived the danger. The Arabs besieged Constantinople, inspired by a saying of the prophet. However, Constantinople's defenses, including Greek fire, repelled them. The siege lasted for years, but eventually, shipwreck, disease, and fierce resistance forced the Arabs to retreat. The secret of Greek fire remained with the Byzantines for centuries, a critical factor in their defense. |
|
| 52-2 The Arabs were blocked from entering Europe via Constantinople and Greek fire but invaded Gaul through the Pyrenees. The weakened French monarchy, led by the lazy Merovingian kings, could not resist. The real power lay with the mayors of the palace, like Pepin. Charles Martel, Pepin's son, restored Frankish strength and defeated the Arabs at the Battle of Tours in 732, stopping their advance. Charles, known as Martel ("The Hammer"), crushed the Saracens, preventing further invasions. His victory was crucial in preserving Christianity in Europe, despite his controversial use of church wealth for military purposes. |
|
| 52-3 In a private condition, desires are repressed by poverty and subordination, but a despotic prince's wishes are instantly gratified. The lives of millions serve him, yet true happiness remains elusive. Abdalrahman, despite fifty years of wealth and power, counted only fourteen days of genuine happiness. His reign illustrates that luxury and power do not ensure happiness. The caliphs' luxury weakened the Arabian empire, diverting focus from conquest to pleasure. The Abbassides' neglect of economy and military rewards led to decline, as their subjects sought riches, fame, and domestic tranquility, diminishing their enthusiasm for war. |
|
| 52-4 Under Almamon at Bagdad and Michael the Stammerer at Constantinople, the Arabs conquered Crete and Sicily. Andalusian volunteers, unhappy in Spain, turned to piracy, invading Alexandria and then Crete. They established a colony at Candax, leading to 138 years of conflict with Constantinople. In Sicily, Euphemius sought Saracen aid against the Byzantine Empire, leading to a Saracen foothold and the eventual fall of Syracuse. The Saracens' raids extended to Italy, threatening Rome itself. Pope Leo IV rallied allies and defenses, repelling the invaders. The Saracens' disunity prevented further conquests, saving Italy from becoming part of the Arab Empire. |
|
|
|
53 Fate Of Eastern Empire 4 59.3 49:25 2:25:25
| 53-1 In the tenth century, Constantine Porphyrogenitus wrote instructional texts for his son, illuminating the Byzantine Empire's state, both in peace and war. He detailed Constantinople's ceremonies, surveyed the provinces, explained Roman military tactics, and revealed Byzantine political secrets. These works, while ambitious, had limitations. The Basilics, a partial version of Justinian's laws, were marred by bigotry. Historical books highlighted ancient virtues but included superstitious saints' lives. Agricultural and military treatises mixed wisdom with outdated practices. Despite these flaws, Constantine's works provided insights into Byzantine governance, military, and culture, blending original thought with inherited traditions. |
|
|
| 53-3 The highest titles and humblest postures, once reserved for the Supreme Being, were used to flatter and intimidate humans. Diocletian adopted the Persian custom of prostration and kissing the emperor's feet. This practice persisted in the Greek monarchy, except on Sundays. All, including princes and foreign ambassadors, had to show this reverence. Liutprand, Bishop of Cremona, described his humiliating first audience with the Byzantine emperor, who displayed his wealth and power through elaborate ceremonies. Such traditions, rooted in fear and flattery, illustrate the rigid and ostentatious nature of Byzantine court life. |
|
| 53-4 A name of some German tribes between the Rhine and the Weser spread its influence over Gaul, Germany, and Italy. The common appellation of Franks was used by Greeks and Arabians for the Latin Christians of the West. United by Charlemagne, the empire's power waned after his lineage divided, failing to rival Byzantine Caesars. By the tenth century, Charlemagne's family had nearly vanished, his empire fractured into independent states, leading to anarchy and discord. Nobles defied their sovereigns, waged private wars, and oppressed vassals, fostering a martial spirit but undermining centralized authority and governance. |
|
|
|
| 54 Origin & Doctrine Of Paulicians 2 23.1 19:15 41:29
|
55 Bulgarians, Hungarians & Russians 3 41.3 34:25 1:06:21
|
|
| 55-3 In 190 years, the Russians attempted four times to plunder Constantinople, driven by tales of its wealth and their own desires. Their naval expeditions were large, with boats made from beech or willow, carrying 40-70 men. Their invasions often failed due to Greek fire, but they occasionally succeeded by surprise or during times of Greek weakness. Treaties sometimes diverted their attacks. Eventually, under leaders like Swatoslaus, they engaged in significant military campaigns, even threatening Constantinople. Over time, Russian interaction with the Greeks, including the conversion of rulers like Olga and Wolodomir, brought Christianity and cultural exchange to Russia. |
|
|
|
|
56 Saracens, Franks & Normans 5 69.7 58:05 2:39:34
| 56-1 The Greeks, Saracens, and Franks clashed in Italy, with southern provinces mainly under the Lombard dukes of Beneventum. This region eventually split into rival principalities, inviting Saracen intervention. For 200 years, Italy faced repeated invasions, primarily from Saracen forces based in Palermo. An alliance between Basil the Macedonian and Lewis, Charlemagne's great-grandson, led to the siege and capture of Bari. Despite initial success, the alliance soon faltered due to mutual jealousy. Ultimately, the Normans established dominance in southern Italy, transforming the region with their martial prowess and integration into the local socio-political fabric. |
|
| 56-2 The Normans of Apulia, situated between two empires, leveraged both German and Byzantine alliances. Their primary claim was conquest, driven by ambition and avarice, leading to distrust and resentment. Divided among twelve counts, their internal conflicts worsened under Drogo's leadership. Byzantine efforts to relocate them to Persia failed, sparking a coalition against them. Pope Leo IX's campaign with German support ended in defeat at Civitella, where Normans triumphed. Subsequently, Robert Guiscard, a prominent Norman leader, expanded their territory, solidified by papal alliance, leading to the establishment of the Kingdom of Naples, enduring through subsequent centuries. |
|
|
|
|
|
57 Turks 3 45.6 38 1:09:06
|
| 57-2 Following the fall of the caliphs, the discord of the Saracens spared the Asiatic provinces of Rome, which had expanded under Nicephorus, Zimisces, and Basil. However, 25 years post-Basil, a new race of Barbarians assaulted these territories. Combining Scythian valor with fanaticism, Turkish horsemen spread across a vast frontier. Despite initial bloodshed, Togrul's impact on the Greek empire was minimal. His successor, Alp Arslan, targeted Armenian cities and Georgia, spreading terror but meeting resistance. Ultimately, the fall of Armenia was lamented by some Christians, but the bravery of the Macedonian legions preserved some hope. |
|
|
|
|
|
58 1st Crusade 5 82.2 1:08:30 2:22:08
| 58-1 About twenty years after Jerusalem’s conquest by the Turks, Peter, a hermit from Amiens, visited the holy sepulchre. Moved by the Christians' plight, he vowed to rally Europe for their cause. The patriarch provided letters, and Peter sought Pope Urban II’s support. Despite his humble appearance, Peter’s fervent preaching inspired many. He traveled across Italy and France, stirring crowds with tales of Jerusalem’s suffering. His zeal led to a massive response, culminating in the First Crusade. Urban II endorsed Peter's mission, and the cry “God wills it” echoed across Europe, rallying countless crusaders for the holy war. |
|
|
| 58-3 Between the age of Charlemagne and the crusades, European military organization transformed. Infantry service was relegated to plebeians, while cavalry became the army's strength, with knights serving on horseback. Sovereigns distributed lands among barons and vassals, forming the noble or equestrian order. This system preserved noble bloodlines, though valiant plebeians could rise through the ranks. Knighthood ceremonies, initially simple, gained religious significance during the holy wars, with knights swearing to uphold justice and protect the distressed. This institution refined barbarian temperaments, promoting faith, justice, and humanity, and fostering a shared chivalric culture across Christendom. |
|
| 58-4 I have expounded on the crusaders' initial steps, illustrating Europe's manners and character. However, I shall condense the account of their blind achievements. After leaving Nicomedia, they advanced, besieging Nice. Sultan Kilij Arslan resisted fiercely but ultimately lost the city to the crusaders, aided by Emperor Alexius. Moving towards Phrygia, the crusaders faced Sultan Kilij Arslan again, who rallied a massive force. Despite initial setbacks, the crusaders triumphed at Dorylaeum. Their journey through Asia Minor was arduous, marked by battles and sieges, notably Antioch, where treachery and heroism intertwined. They continued, driven by faith and ambition, towards their ultimate goal: Jerusalem. |
|
|
|
|
6 13
59 Crusades 3 57.7 48:05 51:26
| 59-1 Alexius I, like a jackal following a lion, benefited from the Crusaders' conquests. He secured Nice, pushing the Turks away from Constantinople. While the Crusaders ventured inland, Alexius reclaimed coastal cities like Rhodes and Chios, extending his empire and rebuilding Christian communities. Despite ignoring the holy sepulchre, he fortified the empire, but the Crusaders saw him as treacherous. Bohemond of Antioch, facing Greek and Turkish threats, rallied support in Europe but ultimately failed to reclaim lost territories. His successors maintained a fragile peace, with Byzantine boundaries restored, preventing further Turkish advances and stabilizing the region. |
|
| 59-2 The Fatimites lost Syria to the Turks and Franks, weakening their power in Egypt. Though revered, they remained isolated in Cairo. Latin ambassadors described their introduction to the Fatimite palace, guarded by soldiers and eunuchs, and adorned with treasures. The viziers, though appearing subservient, held real power. Rival factions, Dargham and Shawer, sought help from external forces, including the sultan of Damascus and the king of Jerusalem. Shiracouh, a Turkish commander, restored Shawer but faced betrayal, leading to his withdrawal. Later, Shiracouh returned, conquering Egypt, which led to the fall of the Fatimites and the rise of Saladin. |
|
|
|
|
|
| 60 4th Crusade 3 63.2 42:40 2:00:22
|
61 Partition Of Empire By French & Venetians 4 55.9 41:40 1:50:17
|
|
|
| 61-4 The northern conquerors of the Roman Empire gradually mingled with the provincials, rekindling the arts of antiquity. By Charlemagne's age, their settlements had some stability but faced invasions by Normans, Saracens, and Hungarians, which led to anarchy. By the 11th century, these threats subsided, allowing for progress. Despite the turmoil of the Crusades, they inadvertently weakened feudal oppression, leading to charters of freedom and improved conditions for peasants. The arts and commerce flourished, but the costs of the Crusades diverted energy from domestic improvement, ultimately delaying Europe’s maturity despite some philosophers’ praise of their influence. |
|
|
|
62 Greek Emperors Of Nice & Constantinople 3 43.4 36: 1:04:08
| 62-1 The loss of Constantinople briefly revived Greek vigor. Princes and nobles, driven from their palaces, fought for the remnants of the empire. Among them, Theodore Lascaris and John Ducas Vataces stood out for restoring the Roman standard in Nice. Lascaris, commanding only three cities and two thousand soldiers, expanded his principality into an empire through boldness and rapid victories. His successor, Vataces, consolidated power, reclaimed territories, and revitalized agriculture, turning royal lands into productive estates. His internal policies promoted self-sufficiency and learning. Despite some personal vices, Vataces' reign was marked by prosperity and strategic alliances, securing his legacy. |
|
| 62-2 The danger and scandal of this excommunication lasted over three years until popular clamor subsided. Arsenius' inflexible spirit was condemned, and the emperor hinted he might seek a more lenient judge in the Roman pontiff. Arsenius was accused of conspiracy, deposed by a synod, and exiled. Gregory of Adrianople replaced him but failed to support the emperor's absolution. Joseph, a monk, finally absolved the emperor in a public ceremony, restoring him to communion. However, Arsenius' followers continued a schism for forty-eight years, proposing a miracle test that failed, briefly uniting, then renewing the conflict until reconciliation. |
|
| 62-3 The first Palaeologus saved his empire by causing Western kingdoms to rebel. This discord led to a generation of warriors who later endangered his son's empire. Debts and taxes corrode modern peace, but in the disorderly Middle Ages, disbanded armies caused chaos. Idle and proud, mercenaries turned to robbery. Post-Sicily peace, many Genoese, Catalans, and others joined forces to fight Turks in Asia. Supported by Sicily's king, they became a powerful force under Roger de Flor, who, despite initial success against the Turks, led his troops into conflict with the Greeks, leading to further turmoil and disorder. |
|
|
|
|
63 Civil Wars & Ruin Of Greek Empire 2 37.1 30:55 1:01:50
|
64 Moguls, Ottoman Turks 4 51.7 43:05 1:29:11
| 64-1 From the petty quarrels of a city and her suburbs, and the cowardice and discord of the falling Greeks, I now ascend to the victorious Turks. Their rise and progress, connected with significant modern history, are rooted in the great eruption of the Moguls and Tartars. From the highlands between China, Siberia, and the Caspian Sea, emigrations and wars have repeatedly emerged. In the twelfth century, these regions were occupied by pastoral tribes united by Zingis (Temugin). His ascent to power involved military discipline, religious enthusiasm, and the energy of the national character, leading to significant conquests and a new code of laws. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
65 Elevation Of Timour Or Tamerlane, & His Death 3 54.545:25 1:28:23
| 65-1 Timour's ambition was twofold: conquering the world and being remembered by future generations. His reign's events were meticulously recorded and reviewed by knowledgeable individuals, with Timour possibly contributing to his own commentaries and governmental institutions. However, his fame suffered due to ignorance and calumny, despite his noble lineage. Born in Sebzar, Timour rose from a young warrior to a nation's hero, overcoming early struggles with remarkable resilience. He ultimately claimed imperial power, honoring the house of Zingis, and embarked on numerous conquests. Timour's empire extended over Persia, Tartary, and India, demonstrating his unparalleled military prowess. |
|
| 65-2 The military republic of the Mamalukes reigned in Egypt and Syria, with the Circassian dynasty overthrowing the Turks. Barkok, a former slave, was restored to the throne amidst rebellion and discord. Timour's forces subdued Syria, using elephants and cavalry to cause disarray among the Mamalukes. Aleppo fell through treachery, and Damascus suffered a similar fate. Timour spared only those who had buried Hosein's head and artisans sent to Samarcand. Returning from Palestine, Timour burned Aleppo again, rewarding Ali's sectaries. After conquering Bagdad and Georgia, he prepared to battle the Ottoman emperor, enrolling 800,000 men and securing immense riches. |
|
| 65-3 On the throne of Samarcand, Timour displayed his magnificence and power, addressing the people's complaints, rewarding and punishing justly, and building palaces and temples. Ambassadors from Egypt, Arabia, India, Tartary, Russia, and Spain visited him. The marriage of his six grandsons was a grand event with lavish festivities, feasts, and entertainments. After two months of peace, he prepared for the invasion of China with 200,000 soldiers, but fell ill and died near Otrar. His empire soon dissolved, his ambitions unfulfilled. Timour was known for his vigor, temperance, love of learning, and unyielding authority, though his reign brought both order and destruction. |
|
|
|
|
66 Union Of Greek & Latin Churches 4 62.3 51:55 1:32:04
|
| 66-2 During the Crusades, the Greeks observed with awe the constant emigration from the West. Visits from their last emperors revealed the powerful European nations, previously dismissed as Barbarians. Manuel and his followers recorded their observations, noting Germany's vast size, numerous free cities, and innovations in mechanics and warfare. France was highlighted for its wealth, royal court, and military history, though recently humbled by the English. Britain was described as fertile, populous, and powerful, with unique language and customs, though mischaracterized for its purported disregard for conjugal honor, reflecting misunderstandings rather than reality. |
|
| 66-3 After a seventy-seven-day journey, the Greek squadron anchored before Venice. The reception by the republic was grand, with the emperor seated on a throne, receiving the adoration of the doge and senators. The Bucentaur, accompanied by twelve galleys, led a procession of gondolas amid music and cheers. The Greeks marveled at Venice’s splendor, including its spoils from Constantinople. After fifteen days, Palaeologus traveled to Ferrara, where he was honored by the pope and local nobility. Despite initial festivities, dissatisfaction arose as political negotiations began, revealing the pope's weaker position than expected. |
|
| 66-4 During the Crusades, Greeks were astounded by the constant influx of Western emigration. The last emperors' visits unveiled powerful European nations, previously deemed Barbarians. Manuel's observations, preserved by a Byzantine historian, reveal fascinating insights into Germany, France, and England. Germans were numerous, devout, and skilled in duels and mechanics. France, wealthy and ancient, suffered recent English war defeats but prided itself on historical victories. England, rich in agriculture and textiles, maintained a powerful aristocracy despite frequent internal strife. Despite cultural gaps, these observations underline a transformative period of mutual recognition and respect between East and West. |
|
|
|
67 Schism Of Greeks & Latins 2 34.8 26:30 53:39
| 67-1 Emanuel Chrysoloras, a Greek scholar, celebrated the merits of Rome and Constantinople, comparing the grandeur of the ancient capital to the splendor of his native city. He admired Rome's ruins, which evoked its historical glory, and acknowledged Constantinople's strategic location and architectural marvels. Chrysoloras highlighted Constantinople's advantageous position between Europe and Asia, its secure harbor, formidable walls, and abundance of marble from nearby isles. Despite his patriotic pride, he conceded that Constantinople's excellence reflected Rome's legacy. However, he lamented the destruction of ancient sculptures and buildings, emphasizing the city's decline from its former magnificence. |
|
| 67-2 At Warna, instead of finding an allied fleet, the Christians faced Amurath, who emerged from Magnesia, transporting his forces from Asia to Europe. The Greek emperor may have granted passage to the Bosphorus, with accusations of corruption aimed at the Genoese and the pope's nephew. The sultan advanced with 60,000 men. Despite the initial success of the Hungarian king, his forces were overwhelmed by the Janizaries. Ladislaus was killed, leading to the Christians' defeat, while Huniades struggled to save the remnants of his cavalry. The battle resulted in 10,000 Christian and significant Turkish casualties. |
|
|
|
|
|
68 Reign Of Mahomet 2nd, Extinction Of Eastern Empire 4 63.9 53 1:09:41
| 68-1 Mahomet the Second, son of Amurath II, was born to a concubine, not a Christian princess. Raised as a devout Mussulman, he purified himself after conversing with infidels. Later, he distanced from this strictness, showing disdain for religious authority. Mahomet was educated in various languages, including Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, Latin, and Greek. Despite his learning, his nature was savage and ruthless. His reign saw the conquest of two empires, twelve kingdoms, and many cities, yet his brutal methods and insatiable ambition, particularly his obsession with Constantinople, overshadowed his achievements. |
|
|
| 68-3 Constantine negotiated essential supplies in the Archipelago, Morea, and Sicily. By April, five ships, including one imperial and four Genoese, loaded with wheat, barley, wine, oil, vegetables, soldiers, and mariners, faced a Turkish blockade. Despite the Turkish fleet's vast size, their poorly constructed and manned ships failed against the five well-equipped Christian ships. The Christian squadron advanced triumphantly, with Mahomet witnessing the Ottomans' heavy losses. Though the victory revived Greek hopes, Western allies remained indifferent. Mahomet’s retreat plans were halted by a daring strategy to transport lighter vessels overland into the harbor, intensifying the siege and leading to Constantinople's fall. |
|
| 68-4 While waiting for an angelic descent, the doors were broken, and the Turks faced no resistance. They swiftly captured prisoners, favoring youth, beauty, and apparent wealth. Captives were bound, and society's ranks were confounded. Senators were linked with slaves, prelates with porters, and noble maids with young men. Amidst the chaos, families were separated, and the nuns’ wailings were the loudest. Captives were driven through streets, quickly gathered more prey, and taken to the camp and fleet. Sixty thousand Greeks were transported and sold, including historian Phranza's family. This marked the tragic and irreversible fall of Constantinople. |
|
|
|
69 State Of Rome From 12th Century 4 73.3 1:01:05 1:33:55
|
| 69-2 Arnold of Brescia, protected by nobles and people, thundered eloquence over Rome's seven hills. Mixing Livy and St. Paul, he called for Romans to reclaim their rights and restore the republic's laws and magistrates, urging the pope to stick to spiritual duties. Arnold’s reformist zeal also challenged the corrupt clergy's control. His ten-year influence saw two popes, Innocent II and Anastasius IV, exiled. Pope Adrian IV, however, retaliated, banishing Arnold and eventually executing him with Emperor Frederic Barbarossa's support. Arnold was burned alive, his ashes cast into the Tiber to prevent martyrdom. His sect dispersed, but his ideas lived on among Romans. |
|
|
|
|
|
70 Final Settlement Of Ecclesiastical State 4 58.4 48:40 57:20
| 70-1 Petrarch, celebrated for his love poems to Laura, is lauded as the father of Italian lyric poetry. Though foreign perspectives may vary, Italy honors him for his contributions. However, his contemporaries valued his Latin works on philosophy, poetry, and eloquence more highly, spreading his reputation across France and Italy. Aspiring to the poetic crown, he was honored in Rome with a laurel wreath, symbolizing his merit. Petrarch's Latin writings, not his Italian sonnets, solidified his fame, reviving the spirit of the Augustan age and earning him the title of poet laureate. His legacy endures in both Italian and Latin literature. |
|
|
|
| 70-4 Martin V resumed the royal prerogative of coining money, ending a near three-century exercise by the senate. His successors, Eugenius IV and Nicholas V, marked significant events: Eugenius IV was the last pope expelled by Roman tumult, while Nicholas V dealt with the presence of a Roman emperor. During Eugenius IV's conflict with the Council of Basel, Romans briefly usurped city governance, electing seven governors and besieging the pope. His artillery forced their surrender. Nicholas V, in contrast, focused on Rome's restoration, accommodating Emperor Frederick III's coronation peacefully, an event marking the end of Roman emperor presence in the Vatican. |
|
|
|
71 Prospect Of Ruins Of Rome In 15th Century 2 29.3 24:25
| 71-1 In the last days of Pope Eugenius IV, Poggius and a friend viewed Rome's ruins from the Capitoline hill, reflecting on its fall. Once a thriving empire, the city now lay in desolation, with overgrown paths and collapsed monuments. They lamented the transformation from grand temples and forums to overgrown fields and ruins. Poggius described visible remnants, including eleven temples, public baths, triumphal arches, and mausoleums. These observations highlighted Rome's deterioration over centuries due to time, nature, barbarian invasions, material reuse, and internal conflicts, contrasting sharply with its former grandeur. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Visitors
